ft 


iinii 


NEW  WORLD  SCIENCE  SERIES 


'  '.  I  ??F?  A  RY. AC  »U-*W  •*•»!.*..  .^-^ 


From  the  collection  of  the 


7 

m 


Prejinger 
v    Jjibrary 

t        P 


San  Francisco,  California 
2006 


GARDENING 

AN   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEXT 

TREATING    OF   THE    SCIENCE    AND    ART 
OF   VEGETABLE    GROWING 


NEW-WORLD  SCIENCE  SERIES 

Edited  by  John  W.  Ritchie 

SCIENCE  FOR  BEGINNERS 

By  Delos  Fall 
TREES,  STARS,  AND  BIRDS 

By  Edwin  Lincoln  Moselcy 
COMMON  SCIENCE 

By  Carleton  W.  Washburne 
GARDENING 

By  A.  B.  Stout 
HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY 

By  John  W.  Ritchie 
SANITATION  AND  PHYSIOLOGY 

By  John  W.  Ritchie 
LABORATORY  MANUAL  FOR  USE  WITH 
"HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY" 

By  Carl  Hartman 


EXERCISE  AND  REVIEW  BOOK  IN  BIOLOGY 

By  /.  G.  Blaisdell 
PERSONAL  HYGIENE  AND  HOME  NURSING 

By  Louisa  C.  Lippitt 
SCIENCE  OF  PLANT  LIFE 

By  Edgar  Nelson  Transeau 


ZOOLOGY 

By  T.D.A.  Cocker  ell 
EXPERIMENTAL  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 

By  Augustus  P.  West 


NEW-WORLD     SCIENCE    SERIES 

Edited  by  John  W.   Ritchie  ' 

GARDENING 

AN    ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL   TEXT 

TREATING    OF   THE   SCIENCE   AND    ART 

OF   VEGETABLE    GROWING 

By  A.  B.  Stout,  Ph.D. 

Director  of  the  Laboratories 
Nera   York  Botanical  Garden 


ILLUSTRATED 

WITH    PHOTOGRAPHS    AND    DIAGRAMS 

AND  WITH   PEN    DRAWINGS    BY 

MARY  E.    EATON  AND  OTHERS 


Tonkers-on-Hudson^  New  York 

WORLD     BOOK     COMPANY 

1922 


WORLD    BOOK    COMPANY 



THE    HOUSE    OF    APPLIED    KNOWLEDGE 
Established,  1905,  by  Caspar  W.  Hodgson 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YORK 
2126  PRAIRIE  AVENUE,  CHICAGO 

Publishers  and  editor  offer  Gardening  to 
the  schools  with  every  confidence  in  its 
sincerity  and  practicability.  They  believe 
it  to  be  that  rare  product  in  the  publish- 
ing world,  a  text  in  a  subject  that  holds  a 
secondary  place  in  the  schools,  worked  out 
with  the  same  skill  and  attention  to  details 
that  are  given  to  the  making  of  texts  in 
subjects  having  a  major  place  in  the  curric- 
ulum. World  Book  Company  shares  the 
author's  conviction  that  gardening  should 
be  taught  in  our  schools.  Its  hearty  accord- 
ance-with  a  pedagogy  that  combines  know- 
ing and  doing  in  an  almost  perfect  way  might 
easily  havf  .been  forecast  from  the  motto, 
'•Th*  application  of  the  world's  knowledge 
tb  the-  world's  needs."  Alike  to  the  friends 
of  school  gardening  and  to  those  who  do 
not  yet  realize  the  educational  richness  of  the 
garden  field,  this  volume  is  commended 

LIBRARY-AGRICULTURE  DCfT 


NWSS:  SG-I 


Copyright,  1922,  by  World  Book  Company 

Copyright  in  Great  Britain 

All  rights  reserved 

PRINTED   IN    U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

THE  author  is  one  of  those  who  firmly  believe  that 
the  teaching  of  gardening  in  every  school  would  yield 
very  rich  returns  educationally.  The  author  believes, 
further,  that  the  best  instruction  in  the  subject  must 
include  both  classroom  work  and  practice  in  the  actual 
growing  of  plants.  An  intellectual  basis  for  the  work 
that  will  lift  it  to  a  plane  above  a  mere  manual  appren- 
ticeship and  an  opportunity  for  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  knowledge  gained  are  alike  necessary. 

It  is  with  the  earnest  wish  to  serve  both  teacher  and 
pupil  and  with  the  hope  of  further  extending  good 
teaching  of  gardening  that  this  text  has  been  prepared. 
The  aim  has  been  to  make  it  as  easy  as  possible  for  the 
teacher  to  present  theory  and  practice  together,  and 
by  making  the  practical  directions  very  full  and  con- 
crete to  make  it  possible  for  the  teacher  to  devote  his 
time  more  to  the  wider  aspects  of  the  work.  It  is  hoped 
that  such  a  t&t  will  not  only  save  the  time  of  teachers 
but  will  also  serve  as  a  guide  to  those  of  less  experience 
in  their  work. 

The  first  part  of  the  book  deals  chiefly  with  the  most 
important  facts  and  principles  of  growth  and  repro- 
duction in  garden  plants.  The  deliberate  aim  is  to  give- 
the  pupil  an  appreciation  of  the  plant  as  a  living  thing 
and  an  understanding  of  how  it  lives.  The  later  chap- 
ters deal  chiefly  with  the  various  garden  crops  and  the 
practical  work  of  growing  them. 

The  writer  has  been  a  home  gardener  all  his  life,  and 
in  his  experimental  work  in  plant  breeding  he  has  had 
occasion  to  grow  many  thousands  of  plants.  Further- 
more, he  has  been  a  teacher  in  elementary  school,  high 

v 

504676 


vi  Preface 

school,  normal  school,  and  university;  and  for  nearly 
three  years  at  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden  he  taught 
gardening  to  classes  of  convalescent  soldiers  and  sailors, 
many  of  whom  were  receiving  their  first  instruction  in 
the  subject.  Naturally,  the  present  volume  has  been 
colored  by  personal  experience.  Some  of  the  chapters 
consist  in  large  part  of  material  presented  to  the  classes 
of  soldiers  and  sailors.  Yet  in  adapting  the  work  to 
younger  beginners,  countless  changes  in  matter  and 
method  of  presentation  have  been  made  in  the  author's 
own  material,  and  the  views  of  other  teachers  of  gar- 
dening and  the  subject  matter  presented  by  them  have 
been  carefully  considered.  It  is  hoped  that  the  book 
will  prove  useful  to  teachers  and  pupils,  and  that  the 
needs  of  different  sections  of  the  country  have  been 
adequately  met. 


ACKNOWLED  GMENTS 

FOR  help  most  generously  given  during  the  preparation 
of  this  volume  the  author  is  under  obligation  to  many  per- 
sons. In  the  list  of  those  who  have  read  most  of  the  galley 
proofs  and  from  whom  many  helpful  criticisms  and  addi- 
tional statements  of  fact  were  received  are  W.  E.  Larson, 
Principal  of  the  County  Training  School  of  Algoma,  Wis- 
consin, previously  for  several  years  Inspector  of  Rural 
Schools  for  the  State  of  Wisconsin;  J.  L.  Randall,  now  in 
charge  of  gardening  in  the  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts,  Nor- 
mal School,  formerly  Director  United  States  School  Garden 
Army;  W.  R.  Beattie,  Extension  Horticulturist,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture;  Hugh  Findlay,  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  Horticulture,  Columbia 
University,  New  York  City;  and  Kenneth  Boynton,  for- 
merly Supervisor  of  the  Garden  School  for  Convalescent 
Soldiers  and  Sailors,  now  acting  Head  Gardener  in  the  New 
York  Botanical  Garden.  The  chapter  on  "Insects  in  the 
Garden"  was  read  by  F.  H.  Chittenden,  and  the  chapter 
on  "Diseases  of  Garden  Plants"  by  W.  W.  Gilbert,  both 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  both 
of  whom  contributed  suggestions  and  ideas  of  the  greatest 
value.  Many  of  the  uncredited  photographs  which  so 
splendidly  illustrate  the  processes  of  gardening  were  secured 
from  W.  C.  McCollom,  Islip,  New  York. 

To  all  the  persons  named  above,  to  all  those  who  have 
contributed  illustrations  as  acknowledged,  and  to  various 
other  persons  not  mentioned  who  have  answered  letters  of 
inquiry  or  whose  writings  have  been  consulted,  the  writer 
wishes  to  express  deep  appreciation. 

It  has  indeed  been  a  pleasure  to  write  this  little  book. 

A.  B.  STOUT 
NEW  YORK  BOTANICAL  GARDEN 

vii 


GARDEN   LORE 

To  plow,  to  flant,  and  to  hoe  may  not  be  the  chief  end 
of  man,  but  it  was  the  first  great  work  that  was  given  him 
to  do ;  and  that  he  might  keep  it  in  mind  for  all  time,  he 
had  a  pledge  that  the  seed-time  should  never  fail. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

There's  something  wonderfully  soothing  in  having  your 
fingers  in  Mother  Earth.  It  seems  to  take  the  restlessness 
out  of  one.  FRANCES  DUNCAN 

The  man  who  has  planted  a  garden  feels  that  he  has  done 
something  for  the  good  of  the  world. 

CHARLES  DUDLEY  WARNER 

The  ground  must  touch  a  man  before  he  can  amount  to 
much.  ABRAHAM  LINCOLN 

To  own  a  bit  of  ground;  to  scratch  it  with  a  hoe;  to 
plant  seeds,  and  watch  their  renewal  of  life,  —  this  is  the 
commonest  delight  of  the  race,  the  most  satisfactory  thing 
a  man  can  do.  CHARLES  DUDLEY  WARNER 

A  good  garden  saves  the  butcher's  bill,  and  keeps  down 
the  doctor's  bill,  too.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Boy  or  girl,  you  need  to  feel  plowed  ground  under  your 
feet;  you  need  the  contact  with  growing  things  in  the  ground; 
you  need  to  handle  a  hoe,  [and]  gather  the  garden  vege- 
tables. .  .  .  You  need  to  take  part  in  the  digging  and 
weeding  and  planting.  .  .  .  You  need  to  smell  [the  soil], 
to  feel  it,  to  work  in  it.  DALLAS  LORE  SHARP 

To  smell  a  turf  of  fresh  earth  is  wholesome  for  the  body. 

THOMAS  FULLER 
ix 


x  Garden  Lore 

Watching  things  grow,  things  that  his  own  hands  have 
planted,  is  one  of  the  chief  joys  of  the  householder. 

JAMES  G.  NEEDHAM 

Behold  this  compost !  behold  it  well  /'.'..;.  //  gives  such 
divine  materials  to  men,  and  accepts  such  leavings  from 
them  at  the  last.  WALT  WHITMAN 

A  soil,  to  be  fertile,  must  above  all  things  be  light  and 
pliable,  and  this  condition  we  seek  to  bring  about  by  the 
operation  of  plowing.  VIRGIL 

//  you  keep  square  with  the  work,  you  feel  greater  pride 
and  satisfaction  in  it,  and  everything  goes  smoother. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Head  work  in  the  garden  is  worth  quite  as  much  as  hand 
work.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

In  planning  garden  operations  for  the  year  remember 
that  rotation,  clean  tillage,  and  selected  varieties  will  do 
much  to  help  you  in  your  fight  against  both  insects  and 
plant  diseases.  Such  measures  wisely  taken  bring  other 
advantages.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Farmer  Wideawake  will  have  the  plans  for  his  crops  all 
made  before  spring  opens,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  plow  and 
plant  each  crop  as  soon  as  the  proper  season  arrives. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Acquaint  yourself  with  an  intelligent  system  of  crop 
rotation  —  Use  your  brains  —  Then  ivhen  you  are  certain 
and  your  program  is  ready,  DIG  IN  HARD. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Not  only  does  succession  planting  utilize  limited  areas 
most  intensively;  it  is  sound  economics  from  every  point 
of  view.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 


Garden  Lore  xi 

Fall  plowing  now  demands  our  attention.  With  minor 
exceptions  all  the  land  which  is  to  be  put  under  cultivation 
next  year  should  be  plowed  before  freezing.  It  is  not  nec- 
essary nor  desirable  to  turn  the  furrows  smooth  and  flat 
as  in  spring  plowing.  If  the  land  is  left  quite  rough,  the 
action  of  the  frost  during  the  winter  will  be  more  effective 
in  breaking  up  the  soil  and  reducing  it  to  a  fine  powder. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  all  the  heavier  soils  are 
improved  by  fall  plowing,  which  should  be  pushed  when- 
ever opportunity  offers.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

'Tis  the  farmer's  care  that  makes  the  field  bear. 

OLD  PROVERB 

Perfect  tilth,  no  less  than  suitable  enrichment,  is  essen- 
tial for  bumper  crops.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Nature  will  always  find  some  mischief  to  do  in  idle  land. 
Give  her  the  opportunity  and  you  shall  repent  in  another 
season  when  you  find  redoubled  labor  essential  to  keep  the 
garden  clear  of  noxious  growths.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

In  the  garden  more  grows  than  the  gardener  sows. 

OLD  PROVERB 

The  rich  garden  soil  from  which  you  have  taken  an  early 
crop  will  bear  weeds  if  you  do  not  put  it  to  use  for  produc- 
tion of  something  better.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

A  weed,  as  it  grows  from  an  inch  to  afoot  high,  increases 
a  thousand-fold  in  bulk  or  weight,  and  exhausts  the  soil  in 
proportion.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 


xii  Garden  Lore 

Cultivate!  A  hard  crust  over  the  surface  of  the  ground 
is  almost  as  fatal  to  the  growth  of  annual  plants  as  would 
be  a  coat  of  paint  to  the  growth  of  a  pig. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

//  a  good  crop  is  to  be  obtained,  it  must  be  well  fed  and 
well  cared  for,  and  the  work  must  be  done  at  the  right  time. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Land  for  roots  needs  to  be  worked  deep  and  fine. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Cauliflower  for  fall  and  winter  use  may  be  set  after  your 
earliest  peas.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Cucumbers  and  melons  can  be  grown  in  the  spent  hotbed 
in  summer,  and  the  little  plot  made  to  do  double  duty. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

The  gardener  no  sooner  gets  the  mastery  of  the  destruc- 
tive insects,  than  there  comes  another  plague  called  fungi, 
which,  if  not  hindered  or  destroyed,  will  greatly  injure  the 
crops  of  the  garden.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Now  that  bugs  and  blights  abound,  be  up  and  at  them; 
but  be  sure  to  identify  your  enemy  before  you  begin  your 
fight.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

The  warfare  of  the  insect  tribes  upon  the  vegetable  king- 
dom is  a  continuous  performance  at  which  the  gardener 
cannot  afford  to  be  an  idle  spectator. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

He  who  would  have  a  good  garden  must  visit  it  daily, 
that  he  may  discover  and  destroy  the  insect  enemies  before 
they  do  any  essential  injury.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 


Garden  Lore  xiii 

The  race  between  man  and  the  creeping  things  of  the 
earth  is  said  to  be  very  equal.  As  soon  as  man  is  master 
of  one,  a  new  one  appears,  more  persistent  in  its  destruc- 
tive work  and  more  difficult  to  conquer  than  any  that  has 
preceded  it;  consequently  man  has  to  seek  new  and  more 
effective  poisonous  compounds  that  will  kill  these  enemies, 

and  not  injure  the  vegetation  upon  which  they  feed. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

The  gardener  must  watch  diligently  lest  he  get  outgen- 
eraled by  the  bugs,  worms,  and  creeping  things  of  the  earth, 
which  are  ready  to  devour  nearly  every  plant  that  grows. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Snug  up  and  get  things  in  order  for  a  long  winter. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Now  that  the  harvest  is  past,  it  is  time  to  prepare  for 
winter.  Secure  the  vegetables  in  the  cellar  before  freezing 
weather  comes.  OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

Observe  these  hints  and  you  will  find  it  easy  to  keep  win- 
ter vegetables  in  good  condition:  Keep  onions  cold,  dry, 
and  well  ventilated.  Hang  cabbages  by  the  stump  in  a  cool 
cellar  not  too  dry.  Bury  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  and 
beets  in  moist,  fine  soil  in  a  dry,  cool  cellar. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 

We  have  drawn  from  the  land  all  that  our  industry  com- 
pelled it  to  yield,  and  our  crops  in  store  and  the  book  of 
receipts  will  tell  us  the  story  of  the  year's  work. 

OLD  FARMER'S  ALMANAC 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

1.  OBJECTIVES  AND  METHODS i 

2.  REASONS  FOR  LEARNING  GARDENING          .        .        .14 

3.  How  PLANTS  LIVE 24 

4.  How  PLANTS  GROW 36 

5.  THE  FOOD  OF  PLANTS         ......      46 

6.  THE  SOIL  OF  THE  GARDEN          .        .        .        •        •      55 

7.  WATER  AND  THE  PLANT      .        .        •     >•        •        •      75 

8.  PLANNING  THE  GARDEN       .        .        .     * .        .        .90 

9.  TOOLS  FOR  THE  GARDEN      ......     103 

10.  SEEDS  FOR  THE  GARDEN      .        .        .        .        .        .112 

11.  THE  TIME  FOR  PLANTING    .        .        .        .        .        .146 

12.  How  TO  GROW  PLANTS  FROM  SEEDS          .        .        .165 

13.  THE  CARE  OF  GROWING  CROPS          .    .    .        .        .199 

14.  ROOT  CROPS  AND  How  TO  GROW  THEM    .        .        .211 

15.  CROPS  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  LEAVES     .        .        .        .225 

1 6.  GARDEN  CROPS  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  FRUITS        .        .258 

17.  GARDEN  PLANTS  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  STEMS       .        .277 

18.  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 286 

19.  INSECTS  IN  THE  GARDEN     .        ..."      .        -311 

20.  HOME  STORAGE  OF  VEGETABLES          ....    339 

APPENDIX:  TABLES  OF  PLANTING  DATES   .        .                .    348 
INDEX 351 


XV 


<IG.  i.    "To  hear  or  read,  and  then  to  do, 
That  is  the  perfect  school." 


GARDENING 

CHAPTER   ONE 

OBJECTIVES  AND  METHODS  l 

A  school  garden  worth  the  name  is  not  a  teacher's  gar- 
den, or  a  philanthropist's  garden,  but  a  garden  worked  out 
in  thought  and  act  by  happy,  purposeful  children. 

DORA  WILLIAMS 

PROBABLY  the  first  systematic  elementary  instruction 
in  gardening  in  the  United  States  was  given  at  Roxbury, 
Massachusetts,  in  the  year  1891  in  the  school  conducted 
by  Mr.  H.  L.  Clapp.  Eleven  years  later  (1902)  Mrs. 
Henry  Parsons  started  the  first  children's  "  school  farm  " 
in  New  York  City  in  connection  with  the  Park  Depart- 
ment. Since  then,  gardening  in  one  form  or  another 
has  become  a  part  of  the  education  and  training  of  chil- 
dren in  many  cities.  Recently,  under  the  stimulus  of 
the  war-time  necessity  for  increased  food  production, 
various  national,  state,  city,  and  other  agencies  through- 
out the  United  States  joined  in  efforts  to  provide  instruc- 
tion in  gardening,  especially  in  connection  with  the 
schools.  According  to  records  collected  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  from  2258  towns  and  cities, 
at  the  close  of  1919  there  were  2,500,000  pupils  enrolled 
in  the  garden  work. 

In  some  states  the  instruction  is  more  or  less  organized 
for  the  entire  state,  and  in  at  least  one  state,  New  Hamp- 
shire, there  has  been  adopted  a  definite  plan  for  teaching 
gardening  to  all  children  in  the  elementary  schools  of 

1  This  opening  chapter  is  intended  for  teachers  and  school  officials 
and  is  not  for  study  by  pupils. 

i 


Gardening 


.W  rv.  Henry  Parsons 

FIG.  2.  School  gardens  were  started  in  New  York  City  in  1002,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Park  Department.  This  photograph  was  made  in  1906,  on  the 
site  of  the  first  "school  farm." 


the  entire  state.  The  teaching  of  gardening  has  be- 
come widely  recognized  as  an  important  part  of  the 
educational  work  of  the  public  schools ;  the  aims  in 
teaching  it  and  the  best  methods  to  be  employed  are 
now  rather  clearly  denned. 

There  seems  to  be  general  agreement  that  the  primary 
purpose  of  school  instruction  in  gardening  is  educational. 
But  the  instruction  in  the  school  aims  also  to  encourage 
the  making  of  home  vegetable  gardens  whose  chief  func- 
tion is  that  of  food  production.  Obviously,  it  is  through 
the  combination  of  school  and  home  activities  that  the 
educational  values  of  gardening  and  its  uses  to  the  home 
are  to  be  realized. 

Experience  in  the  teaching  of  gardening  seems  to  indi- 
cate clearly  that  the  most  successful  teaching  of  the  sub- 


Objectives  and  Methods  3 

ject  is  that  which  combines  classroom  and  textbook  insinua- 
tion with  actual  practice  in  the  work  of  gardening.  In  gen- 
eral, the  relation  between  the  classroom  and  the  out- 
door work  is  quite  clear.  Classroom  and  textbook 
instruction  deals  primarily  with  principles ;  it  presents 
the  laws  of  plant  growth  and  the  fundamental  relations 
between  plants  and  their  environment  in  such  a  way 
that  their  essential  needs  are  understood.  In  all  lines 
of  human  effort,  those  individuals  who  understand  the 
reasons  for  what  they  are  doing  excel  in  practical  work ; 
thus,  to  obtain  the  best  gardens  we  must  give  the  pupils 
an  understanding  of  plant  life.  Secondarily,  the  class- 
room and  textbook  instruction  deals  with  the  special 
needs  of  the  various  vegetables  and  the  special  methods 
of  planting  and  caring  for  them  in  such  detail  that 
with  but  little  additional  direction  in  the  garden  itself 
the  beginner  can  grow  these  successfully. 

In  the  actual  outdoor  work  the  pupil  learns  the  art  of 
gardening.  Mechanical  skill  in  the  use  of  tools  is  ac- 
quired through  their  use.  Acquaintance  with  plants  is 
gained  from  contact  with  them.  The  best  methods  of 
caring  for  crops  are  learned  by  experience.  Yet  (for  the 
beginner  especially)  there  is  constantly  the  application 
of  principles  learned  in  the  classroom  and  judgment  of 
the  methods  employed  according  to  the  results  attained. 
The  art  of  gardening  becomes  an  intelligent  application 
of  principles  to  methods,  with  eventually  the  discovery 
of  the  most  suitable  methods. 

When  both  the  principles  and  the  practice  of  garden- 
ing are  taught,  the  subject  has  great  educational  and 
utilitarian  values,  and  it  has  taken  its  place  in  school 


4  Gardening 

curricula  because  experience  has  shown  that  the  pupils 
absorb  these  values.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  pupil's 
present  life,  so  that  he  understands  the  significance  of 
what  he  learns  and  does ;  and  it  correlates  as  few  studies 
do  with  the  various  subjects  of  school  interest.  Much  of 
the  ordinary  work  in  nature  study  can  be  taught  in 
gardening  in  a  manner  which  gives  additional  interest 
and  purpose  to  the  work.  The  daily  experiences  afford 
excellent  subject  matter  for  language  exercises,  and  there 
is  opportunity  for  the  application  of  problems  in  arith- 
metic and  for  practice  in  honest  business  methods. 
The  history  of  garden  vegetables  involves  knowledge 
regarding  geography,  climate,  and  the  climatic  needs  of 
the  various  vegetables.  Gardening  also  teaches  much 
regarding  the  principles  of  breeding  and  improving 
plants  and  may  afford  practice  in  such  breeding. 

In  the  larger  schools,  training  in  canning  and  drying 
garden  produce  and  in  the  construction  and  use  of  the 
special  storage  rooms  and  cellars  can  be  given  with  the 
cooperation  of  teachers  in  domestic  science  and  in  manual 
training.  In  most  cases,  however,  teachers  and  parents 
must  lead  in  these  activities. 

Naturally,  the  simpler  aspects  of  gardening  are  best 
learned  in  the  lower  grades.  As  pupils  advance  in  age, 
more  is  learned.  The  vista  of  knowledge  is  ever  widen- 
ing. There  are  constantly  new  discoveries  to  be  made. 
There  are  constantly  the  exercise  of  judgment  and  the 
practical  application  of  knowledge  suited  to  stimulate 
and  tax  the  child's  growing  mental  powers. 

Thus  the  pupil  can  follow  the  subject  progressively 
through  the  grades  without  undertaking  work  too  cliffi- 


Objectives  and  Methods 


States  Relations  Service 
FIG.  3.    An  individual  plot  garden  with  paths  between  the  plots. 

cult  for  him  in  the  earlier  years  and  .without  repetition 
in  the  higher  grades  of  the  simpler  facts  with  which  he  is 
already  familiar.  In  agricultural  sections  especially, 
the  teaching  of  gardening  naturally  and  progressively 
leads  to  the  more  advanced  teaching  of  agriculture. 
This  flexibility  and  exhaustlessness  of  the  subject  is 
another  reason  why  the  teaching  of  gardening  has  been 
so  successful  in  the  schools. 

The  organization  of  the  practice  work  in  gardening 
has  received  much  attention.  Several  types  of  gardens 
have  been  successfully  developed  in  meeting  the  various 
conditions  existing  in  different  communities. 

The  school  garden  or  school  farm  of  individual  plots  is 
one  in  which  each  pupil  of  the  school  or  of  certain  grade 


6  Gardening 


Van  Evrie  Kilpalrick 

FIG.  4.  An  individual  plot  garden  without  paths.  The  rows  of  vegetables 
run  uninterruptedly  across  the  field  and  the  corners  of  the  plots  are  marked  only 
by  stakes. 

or  grades  has  a  garden  plot,  usually  of  small  area.  The 
pupil  cares  for  his  own  plot,  but  the  work  of  planting, 
caring  for,  and  harvesting  the  crops  is  all  done  under  the 
direction  of  a  teacher  and  supervisor. 

Formerly,  in  school-garden  work  very  generally,  indi- 
vidual plots  were  assigned  to  the  pupils,  and  especially 
in  Los  Angeles  and  New  York  City  this  plan  is  still 
followed  with  marked  success.  This  method  stimu- 
lates individual  effort,  and  it  provides  individual  plots 
for  children  who  have  no  opportunity  for  home  gar- 
dens. ."•  But  in  most  places  it  has  been  replaced  by  the 
community  grade  garden  and  the  school-directed  home 
garden. 

The  community  school  or  grade  garden  is  one  in  which 
all  the  children  of  the  grade  or  the  school  jointly  partici- 
pate in  the  work  of  preparing  the  soil,  planting,  and 
caring  for  the  entire  garden  plot.  The  purpose  of  the 


Objectives  and  Methods  7 

garden  is  chiefly  educational,  and  a  large  part  of  the  in- 
struction and  training  is  accomplished  by  the  time 
school  closes  in  June.  Some  four  or  five  pupils  of  the 
grade  who  have  shown  special  interest  and  diligence  are 
selected  to  care  for  the  garden  through  the  summer, 
but  always  under  proper  supervision.  These  pupils 
share  in  the  crops  that  mature  within  this  period.  The 
time  required  of  a  child  for  the  care  of  a  grade  garden 
during  vacation  is  usually  not  more  than  two  half  days  a 
week. 

The  community  garden  serves  excellently  for  group 
instruction  at  the  school.  It  provides  practical  training 
for  the  children  who  can  have  no  home  garden;  more- 
over, the  united  efforts  of  the  community  insure  a  con- 
tinuous care  of  the  plot,  which  is  not  always  possible 
when  the  individual-plot  method  is  followed.  A  fur- 


States  Relations  Service 

FIG.  5.  A  school-supervised  home  garden.  These  gardens  are  especially  suc- 
cessful in  suburban  communities  and  in  smaller  cities  and  towns;  yet  in  the 
crowded  city  of  New  York  space  was  found  for  more  than  80,000  of  them  in 
1917. 


Gardening 


\nrtli  Dakota  Auric.  Eipt.  Sta. 

FIG.  6.  The  best  place  of  all  for  a  garden  is  on  the  farm.  Here  land  is  abun- 
dant, so  the  rows  should  be  planted  wide  for  horse-cultivation.  The  photo- 
graph shows  a  model  farm  garden  of  one  third  of  an  acre  in  North  Dakota. 


ther  advantage  of  the  community  garden  is  that  it  gives 
the  pupil  training  in  cooperative  effort — practice  in 
that  "  team  work  "  which  is  so  essential  in  a  democracy. 

The  school-supervised  home  garden  is  made  at  the  home 
of  the  child  under  the  supervision  of  a  teacher ;  and  for 
successful  participation  in  the  care  of  the  home  garden 
a  pupil  is  given  a  certain  amount  of  school  credit.  The 
garden  is  visited  at  intervals  during  the  growing  season 
by  a  supervisor  who  gives  advice  and  instruction  and 
judges  the  activity  and  interest. of  the  pupil.  Certain 
records  are  kept  by  the  pupil,  and  these  are  correlated 
with  the  work  done  in  the  school. 

School  supervision  of  home  gardens  is  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  best  means  of  combining  school  and  home 
activities.  It  aims  to  promote  and  improve  the  home 


Objectives  and  Methods 


North  Dakota  Ag-ric.  Expt.  Sla, 
FIG.  7.     The  same  garden  shown  in  Figure  6,  later  in  the  season. 

garden  whenever  there  is  opportunity  for  one  at  the 
home  of  a  pupil  in  the  fourth  grade  or  above.  That 
many  home  gardens  are  possible  even  in  large  cities 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  a  school  garden  survey  of  New 
York  City  in  1917  disclosed  a  total  of  83,898  children 
having  their  own  home  gardens. 

But  home  gardens  are  especially  successful  in  smaller 
cities  and  towns  and  in  suburban  districts  of  large  cities, 
because  here  the  conditions  are  often  ideal  for  gardens  of 
this  kind.  The  size  of  the  plot  is  frequently  ample  for 
the  family  needs,  a  well-drained  site  with  rich  soil  can 
often  be  selected,  and  manure  for  enriching  the  soil  is 
usually  obtainable. 

In  the  more  sparsely  settled  rural  districts  especially, 
the  opportunity  for  educational,  vocational,  and  moral 
training  through  gardening  is  far  from  being  utilized  at 
present.  Here,  however,  special  supervisors  and  teachers 


io  Gardening 

must  consume  so  much  time  in  travel  that  the  instruc- 
tion becomes  costly.  Perhaps  in  the  country  the  work 
in  gardening  should  become  a  part  of  the  more  general 
boys'  and  girls'  club  work,  with  the  same  teacher 
for  both  the  gardening  and  the  other  work.  Certainly, 
under  the  stimulus  of  competent  supervision  and 
guidance  and  with  proper  credit  in  the  school  course, 
home  gardening  in  the  country  can  be  made  to  yield 
at  least  as  rich  results  as  it  now  yields  in  towns  and 
cities. 

The  demonstration  or  observation  garden  is  chiefly  for 
educational  purposes.  It  supplements  the  school,  grade, 
and  home  gardens,  and  serves  to  instruct  the  entire  com- 
munity, young  and  old  alike.  At  the  present  time  the 
most  common  observation  garden  is  one  that  demon- 
strates a  model  home  garden. 

But  an  observation  garden  may  serve  other  purposes. 
Plants  not  usually  seen  in  the  region  may  be  grown,  and 
new  crops  or  new  varieties  of  standard  crops  may 
be  tested  to  determine  if  they  are  suited  to  local  culture. 
A  school  can  maintain  hotbeds  and  "cold  frames, 
thus  demonstrating  their  construction  and  uses  and 
at  the  same  time  supplying  seedlings  of  such  crops  as 
cabbage  and  tomato  for  transplanting  to  the  home  gar- 
dens. 

The  observation  garden  can  be  used  also  for  seed  pro- 
duction, for  demonstrations  in  plant  breeding,  and 
for  practical  instruction  in  agriculture  and  in  the  grow- 
ing of  plants  of  value  in  floriculture,  horticulture,  and 
forestry.  As  instruction  in  gardening  becomes  more 
general,  demonstration  gardens  will  undoubtedly  be- 


Objectives  and  Methods 


ii 


FIG.  8.  A  school  demonstration  garden.  The  pupil  is  shown  the  various 
operations  of  planting  and  cultivating  his  crops  in  this  garden.  Then  he  is  able 
to  use  this  knowledge  in  caring  for  his  garden  at  home. 


come  an  important  factor  in  the  work.  They  cannot, 
however,  take  the  place  of  the  school  and  home  gardens, 
which  must  necessarily  be  the  basis  of  the  instruction 
and  training. 

The  principal  crops  grown  in  school  gardens  are  quite 
the  same  throughout  the  entire  United  States.  The 
detailed  plans  for  both  classroom  and  practice  work, 
therefore,  will  vary  chiefly  according  to  climate.  In  the 
more  northern  states,  where  the  growing  season  is  shorter 
and  the  outdoor  work  begins  late,  the  garden  work  must 
be  followed  through  the  summer  to  be  most  effec- 
tive. In  the  more  southern  states  the  long  growing  sea- 
son allows  many  crops  to  reach  full  maturity  before  the 


12 


Gardening 


Itainnond  H".  Smtt 

FIG.  9.  The  garden  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  in  the  Emerson  School,  New- 
ton, Massachusetts.  The  children  of  one  or  more  grades  work  together  in  the 
care  of  a  common  garden. 


summer  vacation  begins ;   also  many  autumn  crops  can 
be  planted  after  school  again  opens. 

One  of  the  best  plans  for  organizing  the  grade  gardens 
of  a  city  in  the  northern  states  that  has  come  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  writer  is  that  employed  at  Newton,  Massachu- 
setts. Here  grade  gardens  are  maintained  for  the  fourth, 
fifth,  and  seventh  grades.  In  the  garden  for  a  fourth 
grade,  radishes,  lettuce,  beets,  Swiss  chard,  carrots, 
beans,  and  late  squash  are  raised.  These  are  all  readily 
grown  from  seed  sown  in  the  garden.  Radishes  and 
lettuce  yield  crops  before  the  close  of  school  in  June. 
Beans,  beets,  and  Swiss  chard  give  returns  during  the 
summer  to  the  pupils  who  care  for  the  garden  through 
vacation  time.  Work  in  the  same  garden  is  continued 
by  the  class  in  the  following  autumn,  when  the  squash 


Objectives  and  Methods  13 

crop  is  maturing  and  the  beets,  carrots,  and  Swiss  chard 
are  still  producing.  In  the  following  spring  squash 
is  not  planted,  but  corn,  tomatoes,  and  kohl-rabi  are 
added  to  the  other  vegetables  grown.  In  the  seventh 
grade  potatoes  also  are  planted. 

The  classroom  work  at  Newton  begins  about  March  i . 
The  supervisor  visits  each  grade  about  once  in  three 
weeks  to  give  special  instruction  to  the  pupils  and  to  out- 
line the  work  of  the  grade  teacher.  In  addition,  all 
children  of  the  fourth  grade  and  above  are  encouraged 
to  have  home  gardens. 

Many  other  cities  and  towns  have  carefully  worked 
out  and  put  into  operation  progressive  courses  in 
gardening,  but  space  does  not  allow  even  a  brief  discus- 
sion of  them  here. 

The  success  which  is  attained  in  the  teaching  of  gar- 
dening in  any  school  depends  on  the  efficiency  of  the 
organization  and  the  coordination  of  classroom  instruc- 
tion with  the  actual  practice  in  gardening.  For  com- 
plete success,  especially  in  the  northern  states,  a  super- 
vision that  follows  the  garden  through  the  entire  summer 
vacation  is  absolutely  essential.  The  quality  of  the 
instruction  and  supervision  is  dependent  on  the  train- 
ing, interest,  and  enthusiasm  of  the  supervisors  and 
teachers  in  charge.  When  it  is  well  taught,  the  subject 
is  one  that  naturally  appeals  to  the  child's  needs  for 
mental  and  physical  training  and  to  his  normal  desire  to 
obtain  immediate  returns  for  expended  effort. 


CHAPTER   TWO 

REASONS  FOR  LEARNING  GARDENING 

I'd  ruther  kindo  git  the  swing 
O'  what  was  needed,  first,  I  jing ! 
Afore  I  swet  at  anything  ! 

JAMES  WHITCOMB  RILEY 

THE  idea  expressed  by  the  poet  in  the  above  lines  is 
a  good  one.  It  is  always  well  to  find  out  why  we  are 
doing  anything  before  we  spend  time  and  effort  on  it. 
Here  are  some  of  the  reasons  for  learning  gardening. 

Gardening  is  educative.  The  chief  reason  for  learn- 
ing gardening  is  that  it  gives  us  a  store  of  useful  and  inter- 
esting knowledge  we  would  be  likely  to  get  in  no 
other  way.  Through  his  work  the  gardener  learns 
about  insects,  soils,  and  weather.  He  works  with  liv- 
ing plants  and  comes  to  understand  how  they  live  and 
grow.  Thus  he  learns  to  know  nature  and  nature's  laws, 
and  how  the  workings  of  these  laws  affect  his  own  life. 


FIG.  10.     Gardening  is  educative.    Through  his  work  the  gardener  learns  many 
facts  about  plants,  insects,  soils,  and  weather. 

14 


Reasons  for  Learning  Gardening  15 


FIG.  xi.  Gardening  allows  children  to  share  in  the  family  work.  By  carry- 
ing his  share  of  the  burden  a  child  gains  in  self-respect  and  has  a  position  of 
more  dignity  in  the  family  circle. 

Gardening  allows  children  to  share  in  the  family  work. 

It  is  wrong  to  accept  something  for  nothing  when  we 
can  pay.  Through  garden  work  children  can  give  to 
their  parents  something  for  what  they  have  received 
and  are  receiving  from  them.  Excepting  spading,  gar- 
den work  is  light,  and  the  average  child  of  ten  can  do 
most  of  it.  By  taking  up  this  work  a  child  gains  the 
respect  of  the  older  members  of  the  family,  and  his  ideas 
and  wishes  are  more  carefully  considered  in  the  family 
circle  than  they  would  be  if  he  were  not  helping  to  carry 
the  family  load. 

Another  great  advantage  of  gardening  for  many 
children  is  that  it  allows  them  to  work  with  their  parents 
or  other  older  persons.  Many  parents  play  with  their 
children  but  do  not  find  time  to  discuss  serious  matters 
with  them.  Working  with  an  older  person  in  a  garden 


i6 


Gardening 


gives  a  child  an  opportu- 
nity to  talk  over  many 
important  problems,  and 
to  learn  much  about  the 
work  in  hand  and  also 
about  the  larger  affairs 
of  life. 

Gardening  gives  an 
appreciation  of  property 
rights.  We  own  our 
gardens.  We  know  the 
thought  and  labor  we 
have  put  into  them  and 
that  without  our  labor 
they  never  would  have 
existed.  We  know  that 
what  we  have  thus 
created  by  our  own 

FIG.  12.     Another  great  advantage  in  gar-  pffo-fj,      Kplnnox      to     lie; 

dening  is  that  it  allows  children  to  work  (  as» 

with  older  persons.    This  gives  an  oppor-  and    through    an    Under- 
tunity  for  talking  over  many  important  ,.  r 

problems  not  connected  with  garden  work.  Standing      Ol       OUr      Own 

property  rights   we   are 
led  to  understand  the  property  rights  of  others. 

Gardening  leads  to  industry  and  an  understanding  of 
the  importance  of  labor.  By  working  in  the  garden  we 
establish  habits  of  industry,  and  through  the  garden 
we  come  to  appreciate  the  value  of  labor  and  the  im- 
portance of  industry.  When  we  care  for  a  garden 
properly,  it  thrives  and  repays  us  in  good  harvests. 
When  we  spend  only  a  little  effort  on  it,  the  harvest 
is  correspondingly  scant.  Thus  we  come  to  realize 


Reasons  for  Learning  Gardening 


that  men  can  have  only 
that  which  they  produce 
by  their  labor ;  that  by 
labor  we  can  create 
something  for  ourselves 
without  taking  it  from 
any  one  else. 

Gardening  gives  prac- 
tical business  experi- 
ence. Gardening  often 
affords  business  experi- 
ence through  the  sale 
of  garden  produce  in  the 
market  or  to  neighbors. 
Such  experience  enables 
a  young  person  to  learn 
how  to  deal  with  others 
and  gives  him  a  training 

,      ,  i     i          r  i        '       FIG.  13.     Gardening  gives  an  appreciation 

and  a  knowledge  of  busi-    of  pr0perty  rights.    Even  a  young  gar- 
ness  methods    that  are    d.en,er,  J"10^  that  ^  fruits  of  ^  labor 

rightfully  belong  to  him. 

of  the  highest  value  in 

almost   any   profession   or   walk   of   life. 

Gardening  gives  healthful  exercise.  Gardening  gives 
healthful  outdoor  exercise,  which  is  especially  beneficial 
to  school  children  and  to  those  who  in  later  life  work 
indoors.  This  exercise  is  varied,  bringing  into  use  many 
different  muscles,  which  rests  the  nervous  system  in- 
stead of  tiring  it  as  fine  and  close  work  does. 

For  those  inclined  to  be  nervous,  gardening  is  an 
especially  valuable  form  of  exercise.  Because  it  is 
a  light  outdoor  occupation,  the  work  itself  is  soothing 


i8 


Gardening 


U.  N.  D.  A. 

FIG.  14.     Gardening  helps  to  fix  habits  of  industry.     It  is  for  the  good  of  all 
that  idle  hands  and  idle  land  should  be  employed  in  this  way. 


f.  L.  Miller 

FIG.  15.  Through  gardening  we  come  to  an  understanding  of  the  importance 
of  labor.  No  gardener  produces  a  crop  like  this  without  understanding  that 
careful,  persevering  effort  lies  back  of  everything  worth  while.  This  splendid 
garden  is  a  "Cook  County  School-Home  Project"  at  Harvey,  Illinois. 


Reasons  for  Learning  Gardening 


to  tired  nerves,  and  the 
feeling  of  ownership  and 
the  interest  in  watching 
the  plants  grow  gives 
us  satisfaction  and  peace 
of  mind.  Such  a  mental 
condition  gives  content- 
ment of  mind  and  sta- 
bility of  character,  and 
helps  to  make  good 
neighbors  and  good  citi- 
zens. 

Gardening  improves 
the  family  diet.  Fresh 
vegetables  are  necessary 
to  the  health.  They 
supply  bulk  in  the  diet ; 
they  furnish  calcium, 
iron,  and  other  minerals  n 

riG.  10.     Gardening  gives  practical  busi- 

that  are  Often  lacking  ness  training.  This  young  gardener  is 
i*n  nrVipr  fnnHd  •  qnrl  frnrn  PreParinS  her  tomatoes  for  market  so  care- 

)ds  ,  and     om    fully  that  there  will  be  no  complaints  frora 
them  we  get  substances    her  customers. 
called  vitamins  that  are 

absolutely  necessary  for  health.  Scurvy  is  due  to  the  lack 
of  a  vitamin  found  in  abundance  in  tomatoes,  turnips, 
cabbage,  and  other  fresh  vegetables.  The  vitamins  that 
make  milk  and  butter  so  necessary  in  the  diet  are  collected 
by  the  cow  from  the  grass,  and  the  same  vitamins  are 
found  in  all  green  vegetables.  Recent  experiments  with 
animals  make  it  seem  probable  that  the  chief  reason 
for  tooth  decay  is  a  lack  of  vitamins  in  the  diets  of 


20 


Gardening 


U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education 

FIG.  17.  Gardening  gives  healthful  exercise.  Such  exercise  is  especially  bene- 
ficial to  school  children,  who  must  spend  much  of  the  day  indoors.  This  garden 
is  in  Los  Angeles. 

children.  If  these  are  furnished  in  insufficient  amounts, 
the  teeth  are  soft  and  the  enamel  covering  is  defective. 

It  will  always  be  cheaper  for  many  families  to  raise 
their  own  vegetables.  Often  idle  land  and  idle  hands 
can  be  used  to  grow  them.  There  is  no  expense  for 
hauling  and  shipping,  and  buying  and  selling,  when 
vegetables  come  direct  from  the  garden  to  the  table. 
In  this  way  all  loss  in  shipping  is  avoided  also,  and  often 
the  vegetables  are  in  much  better  condition  for  use. 
Experience  shows  that  those  families  that  have  their 
own  gardens  use  vegetables  freely.  Many  other  families 
suffer  in  health  for  lack  of  fresh  vegetables.  It  is  es- 
pecially important  that  those  who  are  not  able  to  buy 
vegetables  in  abundance  should  raise  them  for  them- 
selves. 


Reasons  for  Learning  Gardening 


21 


Knowledge  of  gardening  an  aid  in  earning  a  living. 

The  gardener  is  able  to  raise  for  himself  and  his  family 
vegetables  that  it  would  cost  money  to  buy  in  the 
market.  Also,  through  the  sale  of  surplus  vegetables, 
a  garden  often  increases  the  money  income  of  the 
family,  thus  making  it  possible  to  provide  more  comforts 
for  the  family  or  to  save  more  of  the  income  for  future 
use. 

Furthermore,  more  people  make  a  living  by  growing 
plants  than  in  any  other  way,  and  to  millions  of  persons 
a  knowledge  of  gardening  is  a  direct  aid  in  making  a 


FIGS.  18  and  IQ.      Gardening  improves  the  family  diet.     In  fresh  vegetables 
there  are  vitamins  and  minerals  that  are  often  lacking  in  other  foods. 


22 


Gardening 


FIG.  20.  A  knowledge  of  gardening  is  often  an  aid  in  earning  a  living.  More 
families  make  a  living  by  growing  plants  than  in  any  other  way,  and  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  other  families  help  out  their  incomes  by  cultivating  home  gar- 
dens. These  boys  and  girls  are  receiving  a  training  that  is  more  likely  to  prove 
useful  than  any  other  practical  work  that  could  be  given  them. 

living.  Market  gardeners,  fruit  growers,  and  farmers 
are  all  engaged  in  raising  plants  and  selling  their  products, 
and  these  industries  will  always  be  important.  What 
a  person  learns  as  a  child  in  gardening  will  be  very  useful 
indeed  if  his  life  work  is  in  any  way  connected  with  the 
growing  of  plants. 

Thus  we  see  that  we  are  likely  to  be  well  repaid  for 
any  time  we  spend  in  learning  gardening.  And  this  is 
the  more  true  because  much  of  the  garden  work  can  be 
done  in  time  that  would  not  otherwise  be  spent  in  a 
profitable  way. 

Questions 

Name  some  reasons  for  learning  gardening.  Why  is  the 
exercise  obtained  in  gardening  especially  valuable?  What 
substances  necessary  for  a  healthful  diet  are  furnished  abundantly 


Reasons  for  Learning  Gardening  23 

by  fresh  vegetables  ?  Why  is  it  often  better  to  raise  fresh  vegetables 
than  to  buy  them  ? 

Name  persons  in  your  neighborhood  who  either  make  a  living 
by  growing  plants  and  selling  the  produce  or  increase  the  family 
income  in  this  way.  Is  the  number  of  persons  who  make  a  living 
by  growing  plants  large  as  compared  with  the  number  in  other 
important  occupations  ? 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1.  To  determine  whether  gardening  is  profitable.     Determine 
whether  or  not  a  garden  pays  by  keeping  an  exact  account  of 
everything  done-  or  money  spent,  and  of  everything  harvested 
from  your  garden  throughout  the  entire  garden  season.     Keep 
this  record  in  some  permanent  form  (perhaps  the  diary  form  will 
be  easiest).     At  the  end  of  the  season  put  down  in  one  column 
just  what  the  garden  cost  in  actual  expenditures  for  labor,  tools, 
seed,  fertilizers,  and  other  materials,  and  include  also  an  estimate 
of  the  value  of  your  own  labor.     In  another  column  set  down  the 
market  value  of  all  produce  obtained,  whether  used  by  the  family, 
sold  or  given  away,  or  allowed  to  go  to  waste.     Compare  the  two 
totals. 

After  balancing  the  money  account  decide  whether  the  edu- 
cation and  training  you  have  received  through  caring  for  the 
garden  is  of  any  particular  value  to  you. 

2.  To  find  out  whether  families  without  gardens  use  -vegetables 
freely.    A  wealthy  farmer  in  a  farmers'  meeting  argued  that  it 
was  cheaper  for  him  to  buy  strawberries  for  his  family  than  to 
raise  them,  but  when  questioned  about  it,  he  admitted  he  had 
bought  none  the  past  year.     Find  out,  if  you  can  do  so,  whether 
families  who  buy  their  vegetables  use  them  as  freely  as  those  who 
have  gardens. 


CHAPTER  THREE 

HOW  PLANTS  LIVE 

One  who  raises  plants  gets  pleasure  out  of  his  craft  in 
proportion  as  he  knows  what  they  are  doing  in  root  and 
branch  or  in  flower  and  fruit,  at  every  turn  of  the  season. 

JAMES  G.  NEEDHAM 

A  PLANT  has  its  needs,  such  as  food,  water,  air,  sun- 
light, and  protection  from  its  enemies ;  and  if  these 
needs  are  not  supplied,  it  will  grow  poorly  or  may  even 
die.  If  a  garden  plant  stands  in  poor  soil,  or  is  much 
shaded,  it  grows  only  slowly.  If  it  remains  wilted  con- 
tinuously for  several  days  and  nights  because  of  lack  of 
water,  it  is  almost  sure  to  die.  And  when  plants  are  not 
protected  against  insects  and  disease,  many  of  them  are 
injured  or  destroyed.  Like  the  gardener  himself,  the 
cabbages,  beets,  carrots,  and  other  plants  which  he 
grows  are  alive,  and  to  be  healthy  and  vigorous,  they 
must  have  the  things  that  they  need  for  living  and 
growing. 

The  work  of  the  gardener.  The  task  of  the  gardener 
is  to  supply  the  needs  of  his  plants  —  to  give  them  the 
best  possible  conditions  for  growth.  The  gardener, 
therefore,  enriches  the  soil  so  that  it  will  supply  an 
abundance  of  food  materials.  He  cultivates  among  his 
plants  so  that  the  water  will  be  retained  in  the  soil.  He 
thins  the  seedlings  in  the  rows  and  destroys  the  weeds, 
so  that  each  plant  will  be  able  to  secure  sufficient  food 
materials,  water,  light,  and  space  to  develop  fully.  If 
necessary,  he  also  sprays  his  plants  to  protect  them 
from  insects  and  disease.  And  he  does  all  this  work  in 
order  to  give  his  plants  better  conditions  for  life  and 
growth. 

24 


How  Plants  Live 


FIG.  21.  A  gardener  is  a  caretaker  of  plants  —  one  who  watches  over  them 
and  sees  that  their  needs  are  supplied,  so  that  they  will  flourish  and  yield 
him  an  abundant  crop. 


26 


Gardening 


FIG.  22.  "Weeds  and  bugs  claim  much  of  the  attention  of  the  gardener;  but 
if  he  be  master  of  his  business,  he  will  destroy  the  former  as  soon  as  they  germi- 
nate, and  the  latter  during  the  earliest  stages  of  their  growth."  Old  Farmer's 
Almanac 

A  gardener  is,  therefore,  a  caretaker  of  plants  —  one 
who  watches  over  them  and  sees  that  their  needs  are 
supplied,  so  that  they  will  flourish  and  yield  him  an 
abundant  crop. 

Learning  to  be  a  gardener.  One  may  learn  much 
about  how  to  grow  plants  by  growing  them.  By  observ- 
ing how  our  garden  plants  develop  under  different 
conditions,  we  may  judge  what  is  best  for  them.  It 
was  thus  that  our  ancestors  learned  to  raise  plants,  for 
gardening  is  indeed  an  old  art.  In  fact,  many  of  our 
important  food  crops  were  cultivated  before  the  days 
of  written  history.  Man  learned  how  to  grow  plants 
long  before  he  knew  much  about  how  plants  grow. 

But  within  the  last  hundred  years  plants  have  been 
carefully  studied  in  order  to  find  (i)  how  they  obtain 
food  materials  from  the  soil,  (2)  what  sorts  of  food 


How  Plants  Live  27 

materials  they  need,  (3)  what  they  take  out  of  the  air, 
what  they  give  off  into  the  air,  and  how  they  do  this, 
(4)  what  advantage  they  have  in  being  green,  (5)  how 
they  may  be  protected  from  their  enemies,  and  (6)  how 
they  may  be  grown  to  yield  especially  early  crops  or 
crops  of  unusually  fine  quality. 

This  knowledge  of  how  plants  live  and  grow  has  now 
become  a  science,  and  an  understanding  of  this  science 
is  of  the  greatest  help  to  the  gardener  in  his  work.  For 
knowing  how  plants  live  makes  it  more  interesting  to 
work  with  them,  and  the  scientific  gardener  can  care 
for  his  crops  far  more  intelligently  and  supply  their 
needs  far  better  than  one  who  does  not  understand  the 
reasons  for  what  he  does.  In  the  following  para- 
graphs, therefore,  we  shall  explain  how  a  plant  lives. 

The  parts  of  a  plant.  Let  us  examine  some  garden 
plant,  such  as  a  bean  or  a  corn  plant.  We  notice  that 
it  is  composed  of  a  stem  and  leaves  which  grow  upward 
into  the  air,  and  of  roots  that  are  in  the  soil. 

Now  let  us  look  at  a  young  radish  about  ready  for 
table  use.  At  first  glance  its  leaves  appear  to  grow 
directly  from  the  roots.  But  careful  examination  shows 
that  there  is  really  a  short  stem  between  the  leaves  and 
the  main  root;  and  when  the  plant  shoots  up  into 
flower,  we  see  that  it  has  the  same  parts  as  the  bean 
and  corn  and  other  plants  that  we  grow  in  our  gardens. 
Much  as  garden  plants  differ  in  form  and  appearance, 
they  are  all  alike  in  having  (i)  leaves  that  are  exposed 
to  the  air  and  sunshine,  (2)  roots  that  burrow  in  the  earth 
and  darkness,  and  (3)  a  stem  connecting  the  roots  with 
the  leaves. 


28 


Gardening 


FIG.  23.  Young  seedlings  of  beet  and  bean  plants,  showing  how  extensive  is 
the  root  system  even  in  very  young  plants.  The  roots  of  the  plant  in  the  center 
are  8  inches  long,  almost  three  times  the  length  of  the  parts  above  ground. 


The  root  system.  Suppose  we  try  to  get  out  of  the 
ground  all  the  roots  belonging  to  a  plant.  We  may 
loosen  the  earth  with  a  trowel  or  a  spading  fork  and  with 
our  hands  break  away  the  soil  and  sort  out  the  roots. 
Because  the  roots  are  so  delicate  and  so  interwoven  in 
the  soil,  many  of  the  smaller  ones  are  broken  in  spite  of 
the  greatest  care.  But  we  readily  find  that  there  are 
great  numbers  of  roots,  that  they  are  very  finely  divided, 
and  that  they  go  deeply  and  spread  widely  in  the  earth. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  root  system  of  a  plant  often 


How  Plants  Live  29 

has  a  greater  spread  than  the  parts  which  reach  out 
into  the  air.  A  small  plant  of  the  garden  radish  with 
leaves  scarcely  2  inches  long  may  have  roots  that  go 
down  to  a  depth  of  6  inches.  The  roots  of  the  corn 
plant  have  been  traced  to  a  depth  of  6  feet  9  inches, 
and  to  a  spread  of  7  feet  3  inches  side  wise  from  the  plant, 
and  the  roots  of  an  old  alfalfa  plant  have  been  found 
at  a  depth  of  12  feet  6  inches  in  the.  soil.  Studies  have 
been  made  which  show  that  the  roots  of  a  wheat  plant, 
if  placed  end  to  end,  would  extend  to  a  distance  of  500 
to  600  yards;  and  it  is  said  that  the  roots  of  a  large 
pumpkin  plant  thus  placed  would  extend  to  a  distance 
of  15  miles. 

The  work  of  the  roots.  Of  what  use  is  this  great  net- 
work of  roots  to  the  plant?  The  roots  anchor  the  plant 
in  place,  and  they  take  in  from  the  soil  the  water  and  the 
minerals  that  the  plant  must  have  for  its  life  and  growth. 
One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  plants  must  not  be  crowded 
in  planting  is  that  they  require  much  room  underground 
for  their  roots  to  develop,  so  that  they  can  obtain  the 
supplies  of  water  and  minerals  that  the  plant  needs. 

The  work  of  the  leaves.  Every  important  organ  or 
part  of  a  plant  or  animal  has  a  use.  What  do  the  leaves 
do  for  the  plant? 

(1)  The  principal  work  of  the  leaves  is  to  make  food  for 
the  plant.     In  the  cells  of  the  leaves  there  is  a  green 
coloring  matter  called  chlorophyll,  and  through  the  action 
of  this,  sugar  is  built  up  when  the  sunlight  falls  on  the 
leaves.     This  process  will  be  discussed  more  fully  in  a 
later  chapter  (page  47) . 

(2)  The  leaves  help  the  plant  also  in  securing  a  sufficient 


3O  Gardening 

supply  of  the  minerals  that  it  needs.  These  minerals  are 
dissolved  in  only  small  amounts  in  the  soil  water,  and  to 
get  enough  of  them  a  plant  must  take  in  large  quantities 
of  water.  The  greater  part  of  this  is  given  off  by  the 
leaves  into  the  air  in  the  form  of  water  vapor.  This 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  leaves  is  called  transpira- 
tion. 

The  advantage  of  transpiration  to  the  plant  is  that 
it  allows  large  amounts  of  water  containing  weak  solu- 
tions of  minerals  to  be  taken  in  by  the  roots,  and  when 
the  water  is  evaporated  the  minerals  are  left  in  the  plant. 
The  minerals  in  water  remain  in  a  kettle  when  the  water 
is  boiled  away;  similarly,  the  minerals  remain  in  the 
leaves  when  the  water  is  given  off  into  the  air. 

But  in  dry  weather,  transpiration  is  at  times  a  disad- 
vantage to  a  plant.  Sometimes  the  roots  do  not  absorb 
water  as  fast  as  it  evaporates  from  the  leaves,  and  so 
the  plant  wilts.  One  of  the  chief  tasks  of  the  gardener 
is  to  provide  enough  water  for  the  needs  of  his  plants ; 
for  in  hot,  dry  weather  plants  are  often  injured  because 
the  water  is  lost  too  rapidly  from  the  leaves. 

The  stem  and  its  work.  The  stem  supports  the  leaves 
so  that  they  will  be  distributed  widely  in  the  air  .and  can 
receive  much  sunlight.  It  also  carries  the  sap  between 
the  roots  and  the  leaves.  The  water  and  minerals  that 
are  taken  in  by  the  roots  as  raw  materials  pass  upward 
through  the  stems  to  the  leaves,  where  they  are  manu- 
factured into  food  for  the  plant.  This  food  is  then 
carried  downward  through  the  stem  to  the  roots  or  to 
any  growing  and  working  part  of  the  plant.  By  hold- 
ing up  great  numbers  of  leaves  to  the  light,  the  stem 


How  Plants  Live 


The  energy  of  the  sunlight, 
oxygen  for  respiration,  and  car- 
bon dioxid  for  photosynthesis 
are  received  by  the  leaves. 


Water  vapor,  oxygen  from  pho- 
tosynthesis, and  carbon  dioxid 
from  respiration  are  given  off 
by  the  leaves. 


The  stem  transports  ma- 
terials between  the  leaves 
and  the  roots.  Water  and 
raw  food  materials  pass  up 
to  the  leaves,  and  food 
passes  down  from  the 
leaves  to  the  roots. 


Oxygen,  water,  and  raw  food  ma- 
terials that  are  dissolved  in  the 
soil  water  are  taken  in  by  the 

roots. 


Carbon  dioxid  is  given  off  by  the 
roots.  Probably  substances  that 
help  to  dissolve  raw  food  mate- 
rials in  the  soil  are  also  given  off. 


FIG.  24.    Diagram  illustrating  the  work  of  the  different  parts  of  a  plant. 


32  Gardening 

makes  it  possible  for  a  plant  to  manufacture  much  food, 
and  the  stem  has  in  it  "  vessels  "  or  bundles  of  long, 
slender  tubes  that  allow  water  and  food  materials  to  be 
distributed  throughout  the  plant. 

The  plant  as  a  whole.  Thus  we  see  that  the  roots, 
stem,  and  leaves  all  work  together  to  promote  the  life  of 
the  plant  as  a  whole.  The  roots  anchor  the  plant  and 
supply  water  and  minerals ;  the  leaves  manufacture 
sugar ;  and  the  stem  makes  it  possible  for  the  plant  to 
display  many  leaves  to  the  light  and  for  water  and  food 
to  be  carried  where  they  are  needed  in  the  plant.  Thus 
roots,  leaves,  and  stem  each  have  a  work  to  do,  and  the 
work  of  each  is  necessary  for  the  life  of  the  plant  as  a 
whole. 

Respiration  in  plants.  All  the  living  parts  of  a  plant 
breathe  or  respire.  Like  animals,  plants  take  in  oxygen 
and  use  it  in  breaking  down  their  foods.  In  this  way 
they  obtain  the  heat  and  energy  that  they  use  in  main- 
taining their  lives  and  in  growing ;  and  like  an  animal, 
a  plant  gives  out  carbon  dioxid  as  a  waste  product 
when  it  respires. 

Respiration  is  one  of  the  most  important  life  processes, 
for  it  releases  the  energy  that  keeps  a  plant  or  an  animal 
alive.  It  may  be  compared  to  the  burning  of  wood  in  a 
stove  or  of  coal  in  the  fire  box  of  an  engine.  Fuel  is 
consumed  or  combined  with  oxygen,  and  a  gas  (carbon 
dioxid)  is  given  off  to  the  air.  Heat  and  energy  to  do 
work  result  from  the  chemical  change.  A  plant  does  not 
consume  as  much  food  as  an  animal  that  is  actively  mov- 
ing about  and  doing  work  with  its  muscles.  But  a  man 
cannot  live  without  taking  in  oxygen  and  burning  food 


How  Plants  Live  33 

in  his  body,  even  though  he  lie  entirely  motionless ;  and  in 
like  manner  a  plant  must  respire  to  keep  up  its  life. 

Supplying  the  needs  of  plants.  From  our  studies  thus 
far  we  see  that  four  of  the  great  needs  of  a  plant  are  air, 
light,  water,  and  mineral  salts.  Most  garden  work  is 
done  in  order  that  these  four  needs  of  the  plant  may  be 
met  so  that  it  will  live  and  make  the  best  growth.  In 
later  chapters  we  shall  learn  in  some  detail  how  gar- 
deners make  conditions  favorable  for  the  growth  of  their 
plants. 

Questions 

Name  some  of  the  principal  needs  of  plants.  State  a  few  of  the 
gardener's  tasks  in  caring  properly  for  his  plants.  How  did  our 
ancestors  learn  to  grow  plants?  What  advantages  does  our 
modern  knowledge  give  us  in  caring  for  plants  ? 

Name  the  parts  of  a  typical  garden  plant.  Tell  how  far  the 
root  systems  of  certain  plants  extend.  Does  a  plant  have  any 
prominent  parts,  such  as  roots  or  leaves,  that  are  not  useful  to  the 
plant  ?  What  is  the  function  (work)  of  the  roots  ?  Of  the  leaves  ? 
Of  the  stem? 

What  is  respiration?  What  do  plants  obtain  through  respira- 
tion? What  waste  product  is  given  off  when  a  plant  or  an- 
imal respires  ?  To  meet  what  needs  of  plants  is  most  garden  work 
done? 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

i.  To  note  the  extent  of  the  root  system  of  a  young  plant.  Select 
a  young  plant  about  four  inches  tall.  A  beet,  tomato,  cabbage, 
or  bean  growing  in  the  garden  or  in  a  pot  or  flat  will  do.  Try  to 
get  all  of  the  roots  out  of  the  soil.  Note  the  great  number  of 
rootlets  and  how  fine  the  smallest  of  them  are.  Compare  the 
spread  of  the  roots  with  the  spread  of  the  parts  above  the  ground. 
What  does  this  show  about  the  work  of  roots  ?  About  the  room 
that  plants  need  ? 


34 


Gardening 


2.  To  show  that  a  leaf  gives  off  water.  Draw  the  stem  of  a 
healthy  young  leaf  (cabbage  or  geranium  Will  do)  through  a  hole 
in  a  square  of  cardboard.  Seal  about  the  stem  of  the  leaf  with 


FlGS.  25,  26,  and  27.    Experiments  to  show  that  leaves  give  off  water. 

paraffin  heated  only  to  the  melting  point  (too  hot  paraffin  will 
kill  the  stem  of  the  leaf  and  spoil  the  experiment).  Then  arrange 
the  experiment  as  in  Figure  25,  making  sure  that  the  upper  drink- 
ing glass  fits  snugly  to  the  cardboard. 

Arrange  two  other  glasses  in  the  same  manner  but  make  no 
hole  in  the  cardboard  and  omit  the  leaf.  Set  both  pairs  of  glasses 
in  the  sunlight  for  several  hours. 

Where  does  the  water  come  from  that  collects  in  the  glass 
inclosing  the  leaf?  What  happens  to  a  leaf  if  it  is  not  supplied 
with  water? 

The  second  pair  of  glasses  is  used  as  a  "check"  or  "control" 
in  the  experiment.  Why  is  it  advisable  to  have  a  check  in  experi- 
mental work  ? 

That  a  plant  gives  off  water  can  be  shown  also  in  the  manner 
indicated  in  Figures  26  and  27.  When  the  experiment  is  carried 
out  as  suggested  in  Figure  26,  the  twig  is  left  attached  to  the  tree. 
When  done  as  indicated  in  Figure  27,  the  leaves  should  be  placed 
in  the  sun. 

Transpiration  may  be  demonstrated  also  by  turning  a  large  glass 
vessel  over  a  potted  plant,  after  the  pot  has  been  wrapped  in  sheet 


How  Plants  Live  35 

rubber  or  oilcloth  fitted  closely  about  the  stem  to  prevent  evapo- 
ration from  the  soil.  The  amount  of  water  evaporated  by  a 
potted  plant  in  a  day  can  be  determined  by  wrapping  the  pot  as 
described  above,  weighing  the  pot  and  plant,  and  re  weighing  at 
the  end  of  24  hours. 

3.  To  show  that  plants  respire.  Soak  50  seeds  of  the  garden 
pea  in  water  for  24  hours.  Then  place  them  in  a  drinking  glass 
with  strips  of  wet  blotting  paper  intermingled.  As  soon  as  the 
roots  protrude,  the  young  plants  are  ready  for  use.  Secure  two 
wide-mouth  bottles  of  one-half-pint  size  with  corks  to  fit  tightly, 
and  two  small  vials  or  wide-mouth  bottles  that  can  be  placed  within 
the  larger  bottles.  Buy  some  limewater  or  make  it.1  Place  25 
germinating  seeds  in  one  bottle,  together  with  wet  pieces  of 
blotting  paper;  then  place  an  open  vial  or  small  bottle  nearly 
filled  with  limewater  among  the  seeds.  Cork  securely.  Prepare 
the  other  bottle  in  the  same  way  but  omit  the  seeds ;  this  is  the 
"check"  by  which  we  can  measure  the  action  in  the  first  bottle. 
Place  the  two  bottles  side  by  side  in  a  warm  room. 

Observe  frequently  for  a  period  of  48  hours.  Note  that  the 
surface  of  the  limewater  in  the  vial  containing  the  seeds  becomes 
coated  with  a  white  layer,  and  that  this  does  not  appear  in  the 
other  vial.  This  white  material  is  lime  carbonate,  formed  by 
the  chemical  union  of  lime  dissolved  in  the  water  and  carbon 
dioxid  in  the  air  of  the  larger  bottle.  Where  does  the  carbon 
dioxid  come  from?  Why  is  it  that  no  carbonate  forms  on  the 
limewater  in  the  check  bottle  ? 

Now  remove  the  cork  from  the  bottle  with  the  seeds  and  insert 
the  burning  end  of  a  splinter  of  wood.  Why  does  the  flame 
immediately  go  out  ?  Test  the  air  in  the  other  bottle  in  the  same 
way.  Why  does  the  flame  continue  to  burn?  What  do  the 
growing  pea  plants  remove  from  the  air,  and  what  do  they  give 
off  into  the  air? 

1  Crush  a  large  lump  of  unslaked  lime.  Pour  enough  of  this  pul- 
verized lime  into  a  bottle  to  fill  it  about  one-third  full.  Then  add 
twice  as  much  water  as  lime.  Cork  the  bottle  and  shake  vigorously. 
Set  aside  for  24  hours ;  then  pour  off  the  clear  water,  being  careful  not 
to  disturb  the  lime  at  the  bottom.  Filter  this  water  through  a  fine 
cloth  or  filter  paper,  and  keep  it  in  a  tightly  corked  bottle. 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

HOW  PLANTS   GROW 

The  wonder  of  growth !  There  is  more  mystery  in  the 
way  one  bean  vine  climbs  its  pole  than  in  all  the  detective 
stories  ever  printed. 

NEVIN  WOODSIDE 

WITHIN  a  seed  is  a  little  plantlet.  When  the  seed 
germinates,  this  tiny  plant  breaks  out  of  its  case,  sends 
its  root  down  into  the  earth,  and  pushes  its  stem  and 
leaves  up  to  the  air.  Day  by  day  it  becomes  larger,  its 
stem  gets  longer  and  thicker,  new  leaves  appear,  and 
finally  flowers  and  fruits  are  produced. 

Or  a  bud  on  the  tuber  of  a  plant  like  the  Irish  potato 
or  Jerusalem  artichoke,  or  on  the  root  of  a  sweet  potato 
may  produce  a  new  plant.  At  first  the  bud  is  very 
small,  but  it  increases  in  size  until  a  full-grown  plant 
is  formed. 

What  happens  inside  a  plant  when  it  grows?    How 


FIG.  28.  "Tall  oaks  from  little  acorns  grow."  Other  plants  also  have  small 
beginnings,  all  our  garden  plants  coming  from  either  tiny  plantlets  in  seeds  or 
from  buds  on  stems  and  roots.  The  illustration  shows  early  stages  in  the  growth 
of  the  pea,  Irish  potato,  and  sweet  potato. 

36 


How  Plants  Grow 


37 


are    the    new    parts   formed?     Where    in   a   plant   is 
growth  most  actively  going  on?     To  answer  these  ques- 


FIG.  20.  Diagrammatic  representation  of  a  group  of  plant  cells.  Above  is 
a  cell  with  the  wall  cut  and  a  part  of  it  lifted  to  show  the  contents.  Below  are 
cells  cut  crosswise  and  lengthwise.  All  plants  and  animals  are  built  up  of  these 
cell  units ;  but,  of  course,  many  kinds  of  cells  are  very  different  from  the  box- 
like  structures  here  shown. 


tions  it  is  necessary  to  explain  the  structure  of  a  plant. 
The  cells  of  a  plant.  If  a  thin  section  or  piece  of  a 
plant  is  examined  under  a  microscope,  it  is  seen  to  be 
made  of  tiny  units  that  are  called  cells.  Each  cell,  like 
a  loaf  of  bread,  has  length,  breadth,  and  thickness.  The 
outer  part  of  the  cell  is  a  wall,  and  if  the  cell  is  living, 
within  the  wall  is  a  soft,  living  material  that  appears 
somewhat  like  white  of  egg.  In  a  full-grown  plant  cell 
the  most  active  part  of  its  substance  is  found  chiefly 
in  a  layer  just  within  and  completely  lining  the  wall, 
in  strands  of  this  material  that  extend  from  the  lining 
layer  to  a  rounded  body  called  the  nucleus,  and  in  the 


38  Gardening 

nucleus  itself.     Within  the   living  cell    there  is  much 
watery  material  known  as  the  cell  sap. 


FIG.  30.  Part  of  a  section  cut  lengthwise  through  the  tip  of  an  onion  root,  as 
seen  through  a  microscope.  The  entire  root  tip  is  composed  of  cells  which  are 
shown  in  different  stages  of  division  in  the  lettered  series.  It  is  through  the 
multiplication  of  the  cells  and  the  increase  in  size  of  the  older  ones  that  growth 
takes  place. 

All  the  parts  of  a  plant  are  composed  of  cells.     The 
roots,  stems,  and  leaves  are  each  built  up  of  a  multi- 


How  Plants  Grow  39 

tudc  of  these  little  units.  The  food  is  made  within 
the  cells,  and  oxygen  is  used  within  the  cells.  It  is  the 
cells  that  need  water,  and  it  is  the  cells  that  are  alive  and 
grow. 

How  a  plant  grows.  Plants  grow  in  two  ways :  the 
cells  multiply,  and  they  increase  in  size. 

When  a  cell  divides,  the  nucleus  first  separates  into 
two  parts.  Then  a  wall  or  partition  grows  across  the  cell. 
Thus  two  cells  are  formed  where  there  was  but  one 
before.  In  the  tips  of  growing  stems  and  roots,  where  the 
growth  is  active,  the  cells  are  dividing  very  rapidly, 
and  this  multiplication  of  cells  causes  growth  in  these 
parts. 

In  older  parts  of  the  plant,  growth  is  largely  due  to 
the  increase  in  the  size  of  the  cells.  This  enlargement  of 
the  cells  is  caused  chiefly  by  the  taking  in  of  water, 
which  collects  within  the  cell.  After  a  warm  rain  in 
early  summer,  the  young  corn  plants  take  in  water  and 
the  cells  expand  so  rapidly  that  sometimes  the  amount  of 
growth  in  a  single  night  is  noticeable.  In  the  older  re- 
gions of  the  root  or  stem  a  cell  often  has  a  volume  one 
thousand  times  as  great  as  the  volume  of  one  of  the  young 
.cells  in  the  growing  tips.  As  the  cell  enlarges,  its  wall 
stretches,  and  new  materials  are  formed  in  it,  so  it  in- 
creases in  size  with  the  rest  of  the  cell. 

How  new  parts  are  formed.  If  we  could  see  the  plant 
at  the  very  beginning  of  its  life,  we  would  find  that  it 
consists  of.  just  one  cell  within  the  young  seed.  This  cell 
divides  and  multiplies  and  soon  develops  into  the  embryo 
or  tiny  plantlet  which  we  find  within  a  seed.  The  root 
which  pushes  out  when  the  seed  germinates  is  formed 


4O  Gardening 

by  a  group  of  cells  multiplying  and  enlarging  very 
rapidly.  Other  cells  build  the  stem  in  the  same  way.  A 
branch  of  the  stem  or  root  is  formed  by  a  number  of 
cells  multiplying  and  growing  out  to  make  the  branch; 
leaves,  flowers,  and  all  other  parts  arise  from  groups  of 
cells  that  divide  rapidly  and  push  out  beyond  the  cells 
about  them.  In  this  way  new  parts  are  formed.  They 
are  built  from  parts  that  already  exist  by  the  multipli- 
cation and  enlargement  of  groups  of  cells. 

Regions  of  growth  in  a  plant.  Growth  causes  stems 
and  roots  to  increase  in  thickness,  and  there  is  very  rapid 
growth  in  the  ends  of  branches  which  causes  them  to 
increase  in  length.  Young  leaves  and  other  parts  that 
are  just  being  formed  are  also  places  where  rapid  growth 
is  taking  place. 

Stages  in  the  life  of  a  plant.  A  garden  plant  like  a 
radish,  a  carrot,  or  a  bean  does  not  continue  to  grow 
indefinitely.  It  goes  through  the  stages  of  its  develop- 
ment, completes  its  life,  and  then  dies.  From  the  point 
of  view  of  the  gardener  the  life  of  a  garden  plant  like  a 
carrot  consists  of  (i)  a  seed  stage,  (2)  a  nursling  stage, 
(3)  a  building  stage  or  stage  of  rapid  growth,  and  (4)  a 
stage  of  storing  food  and  maturing  seed. 

In  the  seed  stage  the  little  plant  is  almost  completely 
inactive  or  dormant.  We  say  it  is  in  the  "  resting  con- 
dition." It  respires  very  slightly.  It  does  not  grow. 

In  the  nursling  stage  the  plant  begins  to  grow.  At 
first  it  lives  entirely  on  the  food  stored  in  the  seed.  But 
in  small  seeds  like  that  of  the  carrot  the  supply  of  food  is 
scant  and  the  little  plant  must  soon  depend  on  the  food 
it  manufactures  for  itself.  In  the  nursling  stage  a  seed- 


FIG.  31.  Three  stages  in  the  life  of  the  carrot.  On  the  left  is  the  nursling 
stage,  in  the  center  the  building  stage,  and  on  the  right  the  stage  when  the  seeds 
are  matured.  In  the  nursling  stage  the  plant  requires  especial  care. 

41 


42  Gardening 

ling  is  tender,  its  roots  are  few  and  near  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  and  it  is  easily  killed  by  heat,  cold,  drought, 
or  other  unfavorable  conditions.  At  this  time,  therefore, 
it  needs  favorable  conditions,  and  the  gardener  must 
provide  these  as  fully  as  possible.  His  methods  of 
growing  seedlings,  and  of  transplanting  for  certain 
crops  (which  will  be  discussed  later),  aim  to  nurse  the 
plantlets  carefully  during  the  critical  seedling  stage  of 
their  lives. 

In  the  growing  or  building  stage  the  plant  manufac- 
tures its  own  food  from  the  raw  food  materials  gathered 
from  the  soil  and  air.  It  now  builds  up  the  food  which 
it  makes  into  living  matter  and  thus  grows  rapidly. 
The  gardener  is  concerned  with  providing  for  his  plants 
at  this  time  an  abundant  and  continuous  supply  of  water 
and  of  the  minerals  that  they  draw  from  the  soil,  so  that 
the  cells  will  have  an  abundance  of  food  for  growth  and 
the  plants  will  reach  their  full  size. 

In  the  fourth  stage,  growth  becomes  slower  and  food  is 
stored  away  for  the  future  use  of  the  plant  itself  or  for  its  off- 
spring. In  the  radish  it  is  stored  in  the  root  and  used 
later  in  the  same  season  for  producing  the  rapid  growth 
of  the  flowering  stem  and  for  the  development  of  seeds. 
In  the  carrot,  beet,  and  parsnip  the  food  is  stored  in  the 
roots  until  the  following  season,  when  the  flowering 
stem  and  seeds  are  developed.  In  the  potato,  food  for 
the  young  plantlets  that  arise  from  the  buds  is  stored 
in  the  tuber,  and  in  the  sweet  potato  in  the  fleshy  roots. 
In  the  onion  stores  of  food  are  found  in  the  leaves  that 
form  the  bulb,  and  in  lettuce  and  cabbage  in  the  clus- 
ters of  leaves  that  make  up  the  heads.  In  some  plants, 


How  Plants  Grow 


43 


FIG.  32.     When  a  garden  flourishes  like  this  one,  we  know  that  the  gardener 
has  supplied  the  needs  of  his  plants  before  they  began  to  suffer. 


like  the  squash,  the  food  is  found  in  the  fruit ;  in  peas, 
beans,  and  corn  most  of  the  food  is  stored  in  the 
seeds. 

Importance  of  continuous  care  of  plants.  The  growth 
and  storage  of  food  by  a  plant  in  its  later  life  is  but  the 
accumulated  result  of  the  conditions  under  which  it  lived 
in  its  earlier  life.  Much  depends  on  giving  the  young 
seedlings  a  good  start,  when  they  are,  so  to  speak,  getting 
ready  to  grow  up.  In  this  stage  they  are  establishing 
the  root  system  that  must  be  developed  before  the  top 
can  be  enlarged,  and  if  the  young  plants  become  stunted 
and  dwarfed  it  is  difficult  to  get  them  to  start  rapid 
growth  again.  Every  care  also  should  be  taken  to  keep 
plants  growing  continuously  during  the  stage  of  most 


44  Gardening 

rapid  development,  for  unfavorable  conditions  often 
force  them  to  flower  and  fruit  before  they  reach  full 
size. 

The  good  gardener  knows  that  injury  once  done  to  his 
crops  can  seldom  be  repaired  by  any  amount  of  later  care ; 
so  he  supplies  the  needs  of  his  plants  before  they  suffer. 
He  prepares  the  ground  properly  and  plants  his  seed 
carefully,  so  that  the  seeds  may  germinate  and  start 
vigorous  growth  at  once.  He  cultivates  the  young 
seedlings  before  the  soil  becomes  compact  and  weeds 
appear,  so  that  they  may  come  to  the  period  of  rapid 
growth  quickly  and  in  good  condition.  When  rainfall 
is  scant,  he  waters  his  garden  before  the  soil  becomes  dry. 
He  thins  his  seedlings  before  they  crowd  each  other,  and 
he  pulls  weeds  before  they  overshadow  and  damage  his 
plants. 

All  this  he  does  because  by  experience  he  has  learned 
that  the  growth  his  plants  make  and  the  amount  and 
quality  of  food  that  they  yield  depend  on  the  care  they 
receive  from  day  to  day. 

Questions 

Describe  a  plant  cell.  In  what  two  ways  do  plants  grow? 
Explain  how  new  parts  are  formed.  In  what  parts  of  a  plant 
is  growth  most  rapid?  What  are  the  four  stages  in  the  life  of 
garden  plants?  How  does  the  storage  stage  of  the  carrot  differ 
from  that  of  the  tomato?  Compare  the  fruiting  stages  of  these 
two  plants. 

Why  do  plants  need  special  care  during  the  seedling  stage? 
Why  should  the  gardener  try  to  supply  the  needs  of  his  plants 
before  they  begin  to  suffer  ?  Name  some  of  the  things  a  gardener 
does  to  make  conditions  favorable  for  his  plants. 


How  Plants  Grow  45 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1.  To  study  the  structure  of  a  stem.     Examine  with  the  aid 
of  a  hand  lens  a  freshly  cut  cross-section  of  a  tree  at  least  6  inches 
in  diameter.     Note  the  pith  in  the  center.     It  is  composed  of 
thin-walled  empty  cells.     In  some  woods  like  the  oak,  ash,  or 
hickory  the  openings  made  by  cutting  across  the  larger  wood  cells 
may  be  seen.     Between  the  outer  edge  of  the  wood  and  the 
inner  bark  is  a  zone  of  living  cells.     These  are  smaller  than  the 
older  woody  cells,  their  walls  are  thin,  they  are  filled  with  living 
material,  and  it  is  by  the  growth  and  division  of  these  cells  that 
the  tree  increases  in  diameter. 

Garden  plants  have  fewer  woody  cells  than  a  tree  or  shrub,  but 
their  general  structure  is  the  same.  Examine  the  stem  of  a  cab- 
bage, noting  the  pith  and  the  ring  of  wood. 

2.  To   examine   living   cells.     If   a  low-power   microscope   is 
available,  the  teacher  or  pupil  may  strip  off  the  outer  layer  of 
cells  from  one  of  the  inner  leaves  of  a  fresh  onion  bulb,  or  make 
thin  cross-sections  of  fleshy  leaves  and  stems  of  plants  (for  example, 
cabbage)    and   mount    them   for   examination.     The    leaves    of 
many  mosses  consist  of  a  single  layer  of  cells,  and  these  may  be 
seen  by  examining  the  entire  leaf  with  a  microscope  or  even  a  good 
hand  lens.     In  this  way  one  can  observe  the  cell  walls,  see  that  the 
living  cells  contain  much  transparent  material,  and  that  in  the 
green  cells  the  coloring  matter  is  in  rounded  masses  or  bodies. 
Possibly  the  rounded  but  almost  colorless  body  called  the  nucleus, 
shown  in    Figures    29    and    30,    may    also  be  seen.      A  little 
iodine    run   under   the  cover  glass  will  stain  the  cell  contents 
and  often  make  the  nucleus  visible. 

3.  To  observe  the  region  of  most  active  growth.    With  India  ink, 
mark  off  into  half-inch  spaces  a  foot  of  the  end  of  a  growing  vine. 
Then  in  a  day  or  two  note  how  much  each  space  elongates.     In 
this  way  you  can  easily  determine  the  region  of  most  active  growth 
in  the  stem. 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

THE  FOOD   OF   PLANTS 

There's  magic  done  in  plants. 
O'er  simple  elements  of  earth  and  air, 
A  sun-beam  wand  is  passed  — 
And  food  is  there ! 

NEVIN  WOODSIDE 

WE  live  and  grow  on  the  food  we  eat,  but  a  corn 
plant  lives  and  grows  without  eating.  It  sends  its  roots 
out  into  the  soil,  spreads  its  leaves  to  the  light  and  air, 
and  week  by  week  increases  in  size.  Finally  the  ear  ap- 
pears with  the  kernels  swollen  with  a  rich  store  of  food. 
The  plant  has  lived,  reached  its  full  size,  and  at  the  end 
of  life  has  a  surplus  of  food  on  hand. 

In  our  garden  and  field  crops  we  find  sugar,  starch,  oils, 
and  the  other  foods  that  we  live  on,  and  these  are  not  in 
the  soil  or  air.  Where  do  plants  get  them?  What  do 
plants  use  for  food?  Only  in  comparatively  recent  years 
have  scientists  been  able  to  answer  these  questions. 

The  food  of  plants.  In  your  study  of  physiology 
you  learn  that  man  and  the  lower  animals  use  for  food 
proteins,  fats,  and  starch  and  sugar.  Plants  use  these 
same  foods.1  The  difference  between  the  nourishment 
of  a  green  plant  and  the  nourishment  of  an  animal  is 
that  the  green  plant  makes  its  own  foods  from  water,  carbon 
dioxid,  and  minerals,  while  an  animal  cannot  do  this 
but  must  have  its  food  already  prepared  for  it. 

1  Sometimes  carbon  dioxid,  water,  and  the  various  minerals  used  by 
a  plant  are  called  "plant  foods."  Sometimes  these  are  called  the  "raw 
materials  used  in  the  making  of  food,"  or  simply  "food  materials,"  and 
the  term  "food"  is  used  to  mean  the  sugars,  starches,  fats,  and  proteins 
that  are  built  up  from  these  substances.  In  this  text  the  word  is  used 
(as  it  is  in  animal  physiology)  to  mean  the  complex,  built-up  substances 
actually  used  in  the  nourishment  and  growth  of  the  living  matter  of  the 
cells. 

46 


The  Food  of  Plants 


47 


The  green  plants  can, 
therefore,  build  their 
sugar,  fats,  and  proteins 
from  substances  which 
they  take  from  the  soil 
and  air.  They  can  build 
vitamins  also,  which  it  is 
believed  an  animal  can- 
not do.  So  the  green 
plants  build  out  of  sim- 
ple materials  all  the 
complex  foods  used  by 
the  living  matter  of  both 
plant  and  animal  cells.1 
Plants  can  live  without 
animals,  but  every  ani- 
mal is  dependent  on 
plants  for  the  food  that 
keeps  it  alive. 

The  manufacture  of 
sugar.  The  first  com- 


FiG.  33.     Without  eating,  the  corn  plant 
has  lived,  reached  its  full  size,  and  at  the 


plete  step  in  the  manu-    end  of  its  life  has  a  surPlus  of  food  which 

it  has  stored  in  the  ear. 

facture  of  food  by  the 

plant  is  the  making  of  sugar.  When  light  falls  on 
the  chlorophyll,  carbon  dioxid  and  water  are  combined 
within  the  cells  to  make  sugar.  This  process  is  called 
photosynthesis  (Greek,  photos,  meaning  light,  and  syn- 
thesis, meaning  a  putting  together).  Photosynthesis 


1  Plants  also  build  wood,  cork,  gums,  waxes,  and  all  the  various  other 
substances  (excepting  minerals)  found  in  them. 


Gardening 


-*?  <---•''$ -Upper  epidermis 


. 
duchng  tissue      i 

Bundle  sheath^ 


Bundle  sheath^     Guard  cell 


Lower 
epidermis 


FIG.  34.     Section  of  a  leaf,  very  highly  magnified. 


goes  on  in  all  green  parts  of  the  plant,  but  takes  place 
especially  in  the  leaves. 

Leaves  as  sugar-making  organs.  As  the  term  photo- 
synthesis indicates,  the  energy  used  in  building  up  sugar 
is  furnished  by  the  light.  Without  light,  plants  cannot 
do  this  work  ;  and  when  we  examine  a  plant,  we  note  at 
once  that  the  broad,  thin  blades  of  the  leaves  and  the 
way  they  are  arranged  on  the  plant  enables  them  to 
catch  large  amounts  of  light.  This  makes  it  possible 
for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  to  be  carried  on  rapidly  by 
the  plant. 

But  it  is  only  when  we  examine  the  internal  structure 
of  a  leaf  that  we  understand  how  well  fitted  it  is  for 


The  Food  of  Plants  49 

carrying  on  its  work.  The  sugar  is  made  in  the  cells 
within  the  leaf.  Most  of  these  are  loosely  arranged ; 
they  touch  each  other  on  some  sides  so  that  there  are 
air  spaces  between  them.  Thus  part  of  each  cell  lies 
against  other  cells,  and  part  is  exposed  to  the  air  within 
the  leaf. 

On  the  outside  of  a  leaf  there  is  a  very  thin  covering 
called  the  epidermis.  This  is  composed  of  a  layer  of  thin, 
flat  cells  closely  joined  together.  The  outside  walls  of 
these  cells  are  thickened  and  usually  covered  with  a 
wax-like  material  which  does  not  allow  water  and  air  to 
pass  readily  through  it.  This  covering  protects  the  softer 
and  more  tender  cells  within.  But  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  leaf  of  a  garden  plant  (and  in  some  plants  on  the 
upper  side  of  leaves  also)  the  epidermis  has  many  tiny 
openings  through  which  air  and  water  vapor  can  pass. 

Thus  the  inner  portion  of  the  leaf  is  in  communica- 
tion with  the  outside  air  through  the  openings  in  the 
epidermis.  The  oxygen  that  the  cells  need  for  respira- 
tion and  the  carbon  dioxid  needed  for  food-making 
enter  the  leaf  through  the  little  openings  in  the  epidermis, 
and  the  excess  of  water  brought  up  from  the  roots  passes 
out  into  the  air  as  vapor.  The  veins  of  the  leaf  are  com- 
posed of  vessels  which  connect  with  those  in  the  stem. 
They  bring  the  water  and  dissolved  minerals  from  the 
roots  to  the  leaf  and  carry  away  to  other  parts  of  the 
plant  food  that  the  leaves  have  made. 

How  starch  is  made.  Starch  is  only  a  changed  form 
of  sugar,  a  form  that  does  not  dissolve  in  water  and  is 
suitable  for  storage  within  the  plant.  In  nearly  all 
garden  plants  the  sugar  is  changed  to  starch  before  it 


50  Gardening 

becomes  very  abundant  in  the  cells.  Some  of  it  is  stored 
as  starch  within  the  leaf.  But  the  sugar  is  also  con- 
ducted to  other  parts  of  the  plant  to  be  used  by  them 
immediately  for  food  or  for  storage.  The  tuber  of  the 
potato  is  an  enlarged  part  of  the  stem  where  large 
amounts  of  starch  are  stored.  The  starch  that  has  been 
stored  in  a  plant  can  be  again  changed  to  sugar  and 
transported  to  the  parts  where  active  growth  is  taking 
place  or  where  seeds  are  being  formed. 

But  while  most  plants  change  their  sugar  to  starch  for 
storage,  a  few  plants  do  not  do  this  —  at  least  not  until 
the  sugar  has  become  very  abundant  in  them.  From 
two  plants,  sugar  cane  and  the  sugar  beet,  the  world's 
supply  of  sugar  is  obtained.  Onions  and  sweet  corn 
are  rich  in  sugar,  and  wrinkled  peas  contain  more  sugar 
than  smooth  peas. 

The  manufacture  of  fats  and  proteins.  From  sugar, 
plants  make  oils,  in  which  form  many  plants  store  a 
part  of  their  food.  From  the  olive,  coconut,  flaxseed, 
cotton  seed,  peanut,  corn,  and  castor  bean,  oils  are  ob- 
tained which  are  used  for  many  purposes  by  man. 

The  fats  are  present  in  larger  or  smaller  amounts  in 
all  living  plant  cells.  They  are  for  the  most  part  formed 
in  the  cells  where  they  are  found,  and  are  not  to  any  great 
extent  transported  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  another. 
They  contain  the  same  chemical  elements  as  sugar  and 
are  believed  to  be  formed  from  sugar. 

Proteins  are  made  by  combining  chemically  nitrogen, 
sulfur,  and  sometimes  phosphorus  with  the  elements  of 
the  sugar.  Minerals  supplying  these  are  obtained  from 
the  soil.  Without  an  abundant  supply  of  the  minerals 


The  Food  of  Plants 


that  are  needed  for 
building  proteins,  rapid 
growth  in  a  plant  is  not 
possible. 

The  proteins  can  be 
made  in  any  living  part 
of  the  plant ;  but  the 
materials  of  which  they 
are  built  are  most  abun- 
dant in  the  leaves,  and 
they  are  manufactured 
in  larger  amounts  in  the 
leaves  than  in  other 
parts.  From  the  leaves 
they  may  be  carried  to 
other  parts  of  the  plants 
for  storage  or  for  the 
immediate  use  of  the 
cells  in  those  parts. 

Materials  necessary 
for  life  and  manufacture 
of  food  in  green  plants. 
Ten  chemical  elements  are  necessary  for  the  life  and 
growth  of  a  green  plant.1  Of  these  elements,  oxygen, 
carbon,  and  hydrogen  are  used  in  largest  amounts. 

The  oxygen  used  in  respiration  is  secured  chiefly  from 
the  air;  that  used  for  building  purposes  comes  from 
water  and  carbon  dioxid.  The  carbon  is  obtained  in 
the  carbon  dioxid  taken  in  from  the  air.  The  hydro- 


FIG.  35.  The  gardeners  are  appropriating 
the  food  that  the  plants  have  made  for 
themselves. 


1  These  ten  elements  are  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  sulfur, 
ohosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and  iron. 


52  Gardening 

gen  comes  from  the  water  which  the  roots  absorb  from 
the  soil.  The  other  seven  elements  are  secured  by  the 
plant  from  various  mineral  compounds  which  it  takes 
from  the  soil. 

The  minerals  most  often  lacking  in  the  soil  are  those 
that  furnish  nitrogen,  potassium,  sulfur,  and  phosphorus. 
These  are  often  supplied  in  manures  or  other  fertilizers 
(page  66).  When  the  gardener  enriches  the  soil,  he  is 
providing  raw  materials  needed  in  some  of  the  many 
building  operations  going  on  in  the  plant. 

Garden  plants  are  builders  and  storers  of  food.  A 
weed,  as  a  rule,  uses  its  food  for  growth  as  fast  as  it  makes 
it,  and  in  its  small  seeds  it  leaves  no  considerable  store  of 
food  that  can  be  used  by  man.  But  a  radish,  cabbage,  or 
bean  plant  makes  food  faster  than  it  uses  it  and  collects 
a  surplus  either  for  its  own  future  use  or  for  the  use  of 
its  offspring.  These  stores  of  food  we  take  for  ourselves, 
and  we  have  selected  for  cultivation  in  our  gardens  the 
plants  that  will  lay  up  for  us  food  in  largest  amounts. 

The  successful  gardener  gives  his  plants  favorable  con- 
ditions for  food  manufacture  and  provides  them  with 
abundant  supplies  of  the  raw  materials  tkat  they  must 
have  for  the  work. 

Questions 

How  does  a  green  plant  get  its  food?  What  classes  of  foods 
do  plants  build  ?  What  raw  materials  are  used  in  making  them  ? 
Why  cannot  animals  live  without  plants  ? 

What  is  photosynthesis?  In  what  part  of  the  plant  does 
photosynthesis  go  on  ?  When  does  it  go  on  ?  Describe  the  struc- 
ture of  a  leaf.  What  is  the  function  of  the  epidermis?  How 
do  gases  enter  and  leave  the  leaf?  How  do  water  and  minerals 
get  into  the  leaf  ? 


The  Food  of  Plants  53 

How  is  the  surplus  sugar  that  is  made  by  most  plants  stored? 
Can  it  be  moved  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  another?  From 
what  do  plants  make  fats?  Name  some  plants  from  which  fats 
are  obtained.  From  What  are  proteins  manufactured?  Where 
in  the  plant  are  fats  and  proteins  manufactured? 

What  minerals  needed  by  plants  are  most  often  lacking  in  the 
soil  ?  How  does  the  gardener  supply  these  to  his  plants  ?  Name 
one  difference  between  garden  plants  and  weeds. 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1.  To  examine  the  structure  of  leaves.     Peel  off  strips  of  both  the 
upper  and  lower  epidermis  of  leaves  and  examine  them  under  the 
low  power  of  the  microscope.     The  colorless  epidermal  cells  and 
the  "stomata"  surrounded  by  the  green  " guard  cells"  can  be 
seen.     Make  thin  cross-sections  of  leaves  (most  easily  made  from 
such  fleshy  leaves  as  the  cabbage)  and  examine  them.     Perma- 
nently prepared  sections  may  be  bought  from  botanical  supply 
houses. 

2.  To  show  that  starch  is  formed  only  in  the  green  parts  of  a  leaf. 
Expose  a  plant  having  white-margined  leaves  (variegated  geranium 
is  excellent)  to  sunlight  for  several  hours.     Then  remove  a  leaf 
and  make  a  tracing  of  it,  showing  the  green  and  the  white  areas. 
Place  the  leaf  in  a  dish  with  enough  alcohol  to  cover  it.     Heat 
gently  on  a  stove  or  over  an  alcohol  lamp  or  gas  flame,  taking  care 
not  to  boil  the  alcohol  so  strongly  that  it  will  catch  fire.     The 
green  coloring  matter  is  thus  removed  and  the  entire  leaf  becomes 
almost  colorless. 

Obtain  some  iodine  solution  from  a  drug  store.  Add  a  little 
of  this  to  thin  starch  paste  and  note  the  blue  color  of  the  starch. 
This  is  the  iodine  test  for  starch.  Dip  the  decolorized  leaf  in 
water  to  which  iodine  has  been  added.  The  part  of  the  leaf  that 
contains  starch  will  turn  dark  in  color.  Is  starch  found  in  the 
green  or  in  the  white  area? 

Test  cut  surfaces  of  a  potato,  turnip,  radish,  bean  seed,  or  other 
vegetables  for  starch.  Do  not  use  too  much  of  the  iodine,  or  the 
blue  of  the  starch  may  be  somewhat  hidden  by  the  brown  color  of 
the  excess  iodine. 

3.  To  show  that  sunlight  is  necessary  for  the  accumulation  of 
starch  in  green  leaves.    Expose  a  potted  plant  (for  example,  a 


54  Gardening 

geranium)  to  sunlight  during  the  day,  remove  a  leaf  (a),  attach 
a  label  with  string,  and  immediately  place  it  in  a  bottle  of  alcohol. 
Place  the  plant  in  complete  darkness  for  24  hours.  Then  remove 
another  leaf  (b),  attach  a  label,  and  place  in  the  alcohol.  Now, 
cut  smoothly  two  disks  from  a  cork  stopper  and  carefully  pin 
these  on  opposite  sides  of  a  leaf  (c)  so  that  they  fit  snugly  and 
exclude  the  sunlight  from  the  covered  area.  Expose  the  plant  to 
direct  sunlight  for  several  hours.  Remove  leaf  c  and  also  another 
leaf  (d)  that  has  been  left  untouched.  Test  all  four  leaves  with 
iodine  for  starch. 

Is  starch  present  in  a  ?  Was  starch  present  in  the  leaves  when 
the  plant  was  placed  in  darkness  ?  What  became  of  the  starch 
formerly  in  the  leaves  during  the  time  the  plant  was  in  darkness  ? 
Was  starch  formed  in  c  and  d?  Was  it  formed  in  the  shaded 
area  of  c?  What  does  each  leaf  show  concerning  the  influence 
of  light  upon  the  accumulation  of  starch  in  green  parts  of  a  plant  ? 

The  above  experiments  can  be  worked  with  plants  outdoors 
by  selecting  b  very  early  in  the  morning  and  the  other  leaves  after 
they  have  been  exposed  to  sunshine. 


CHAPTER  SIX 

THE   SOIL   OF   THE   GARDEN 

Every  clod  feels  a  stir  of  might, 
An  instinct  that  reaches  and  towers, 
And,  groping  blindly  above  it  for  light, 
Climbs  to  a  soul  in  grass  and  flowers. 

JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL 

THE  roots  of  garden  plants  live  in  the  soil.  The 
fineness  or  coarseness  of  the  soil,  its  looseness  or  compact- 
ness, its  temperature,  the  food  materials  and  the  water 
present  —  all  these  influence  the  life  and  activity  of  the 
roots.  Sometimes,  an  excess  of  substances  like  acids 
or  alkalies  is  present ;  and  the  activities  of  animals 
and  plants  which  live  within  the  soil  may  benefit  or  harm 
the  plant.  The  gardener  can,  in  a  large  degree,  control 
the  conditions  of  the  soil,  and  much  of  his  success  de- 
pends on  his  making  them  suitable  to  the  needs  of  the 
plants  that  he  grows. 

In  all  his  efforts  to  handle  and  improve  the  soil 
for  the  growing  of  his  crops,  the  gardener  needs  to  have 
in  mind  three  points  relating  to  the  condition  of  the 
soil: 

(1)  The  size  and  arrangement  of  soil  particles,  which 
we  may  refer  to  as  the  soil's  physical  condition. 

(2)  The  richness  in  the  various  food  materials  which 
plants  obtain  from  it. 

(3)  The  amount  and  kind  of  water  present  in  the 
soil  and  the  soil's  ability  to  hold  water  and  supply  it  to 
the  plant.  1 

While  these  conditions  are  closely  interrelated,  they 
may  be  considered  quite  separately. 

55 


56  Gardening 

THE   PHYSICAL    CONDITION    OF   SOIL 

How  soils  are  formed.  Soils  are  formed  from  the 
rock  of  the  earth's  crust  mixed  with  the  decayed  remains 
of  plants  and  animals.  Through  the  action  of  air, 
water,  and  changes  in  temperature,  the  surface  rock 
in  the  course  of  time  crumbles  into  particles  which  form 
the  rocky  or  mineral  parts  of  the  soil.  Therefore  soil 
may  be  said  to  be  composed  largely  of  rocks  that  have 
fallen  into  pieces.  With  a  hammer  one  may  pound 
rock  into  powder,  thus  reducing  it  to  small  particles 
like  those  which  make  up  the  soil. 

The  organic  substances  in  the  soil  are  formed  by  decay 
of  plants  and  animals  that  die  and  fall  to  the  ground. 
Organic  matter  that  is  well  decayed  so  that  it  is  black 
in  color  and  in  fine  particles  is  called  humus.  The  dif- 
ferences in  soils  are  due  both  to  the  different  kinds  of 
rocks  from  which  they  were  formed  and  to  the  amount 
of  organic  matter  in  them. 

The  breaking  up  of  solid  rock  and  of  plant  and  animal 
remains  into  fine  particles  meets  the  first  need  of  living 
plants,  for  it  gives  them  a  place  to  grow.  It  allows  the 
roots  to  find  their  way  in  among  the  soil  particles,  thus 
making  it  possible  for  them  to  anchor  the  plant  and  to 
secure  a  supply  of  water  and  raw  food  materials. 

Size  of  soil  particles.  The  size  of  the  rock  particles 
in  the  soil  may  range  from  large  bowlders  to  minute  frag- 
ments of  dust.  The  number  of  individual  particles 
in  a  spoonful  of  ordinary  garden  soil  is  so  great  as  to  be 
almost  inconceivable.  It  is  estimated  that  in  an  ounce 
of  coarse  sand  there  are  about  one  hundred  billion 


The  Soil  of  the  Garden 


57 


International  Harvester  Co. 


FIG.  36.  Soil  that  was  not  cultivated  at  the  proper  time  and  consequently  be- 
came "baked"  by  the  hot  sun.  The  good  gardener  never  allows  his  soil  to  get 
into  this  condition. 

particles.  In  an  ounce  of  the  finest  clay  there  are  more 
than  five  times  as  many. 

The  size  of  the  particles  of  organic  matter  in  soil 
varies  with  the  stage  of  decay.  Leaf  mold  (formed  from 
decaying  leaves)  and  peat  (accumulations  of  plant  re- 
mains, usually  in  swamps  where  decay  is  very  slow) 
contain  many  somewhat  coarse  fragments  of  leaves  and 
twigs.  Well-decayed  humus  is  exceedingly  fine,  and  it 
dissolves  or  becomes  somewhat  jelly-like  when  soaked  in 
water. 

Soil  particles  are  usually  grouped  together.  If  they 
are  separate  and  free  to  move  about  one  another,  the 
soil  is  loose.  But  it  is  seldom,  except  in  the  coarsest 
sand,  that  the  individual  particles  are  entirely  separate. 
In  most  soils  they  stick  together  in  groups,  forming 
granules  of  various  sizes.  When  the  granules  are  large^ 


58  Gardening 

the  soil  is  coarse  grained  and  not  in  good  physical  condi- 
tion for  the  growth  of  plants.  When  the  granules  are  of 
rather  small  size,  the  soil  has  a  crumb  structure  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  roots. 

Soils  like  sand,  that  are  composed  chiefly  of  coarse 
particles,  are  loose.  Soils  like  clay,  that  are  made  up 
chiefly  of  fine  particles,  often  become  hard  and  compact. 

Importance  of  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  In  a 
loose  soil  the  roots  easily  make  their  way,  and  the  root 


FIGS.  37  and  38.  Spading  by  the  trench  method.  The  gardener  scrapes  the 
manure  from  the  unspaded  ground  into  the  trench.  Then  he  turns  another 
strip,  throwing  it  forward,  and  thus  completely  covers  the  manure  to  a  depth  of 
several  inches.  Weeds  and  grass  may  be  covered  in  the  same  way. 


The  Soil  of  the  Garden  59 

hairs  are  able  to  push  in  among  the  soil  granules  and 
particles.  But  a  hard,  compact  soil  may  be  as  difficult 
for  the  tiny  roots  to  penetrate  as  solid  rock.  In  such  a 
compact  soil,  moreover,  there  are  no  spaces  (or  only  small 
places)  between  the  soil  particles  for  air,  and  air  is  neces- 
sary for  the  roots  as  well  as  for  the  other  parts  of  the 
plant  (pages  32  and  51). 

Land  that  has  not  been  in  cultivation  recently  is  often 
hard  and  compact.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  soils 
of  backyard  plots,  vacant  lots  that  have  been  much 
trampled  over,  and  areas  that  have  been  poorly  drained. 
The  particles  are  pressed  together,  and  the  air  spaces  are 
squeezed  out.  No  gardener  would  think  of  planting 
seed  in  such  a  soil  without  first  preparing  it  by  tillage. 

But  even  a  well- tilled  soil  tends  to  become  compact 
from  one  season  to  another.  It  is  constantly  settling 
and  becoming  more  solid.  If  one  tramples  much  about 
the  garden,  the  soil  will  become  more  compact,  as  may 
readily  be  noted  from  the  condition  in  the  paths. 

Keeping  the  soil  in  good  condition.  Plowing  and  spad- 
ing are  the  chief  means  of  getting  and  keeping  the  soil  in 
good  condition.  When  possible,  large  gardens  should  be 
plowed,  but  most  smaller  gardens  must  be  spaded.  The 
best  tool  for  this  work  is  a  four-tined  spading  fork. 

In  spading,  most  good  gardeners  follow  the  trench  or 
furrow  method.  The  soil  is  dug  to  a  depth  of  at  least 
6  inches,  turned  over,  and  thrown  forward,  leaving  a 
trench  into  which  the  next  strip  of  soil  is  thrown. 
Manure,  sods,  leaves,  and  other  coarse  vegetable  mate- 
rials can  be  placed  in  the  trench  and  well  covered  with 
earth;  but  it  is  best  to  spade  the  coarser  materials 


60  Gardening 

under  only  in  autumn.  Special  pains  should  be  taken 
to  pulverize  thoroughly  all  the  soil  to  the  depth  spaded. 
If  it  turns  over  in  large  lumps,  these  should  be  broken 
up  by  hammer-like  blows  of  the  fork  or  with  the  rake. 
It  pays  to  do  this  work  well. 

Plowing  or  spading  in  autumn,  as  well  as  in  spring, 
is  advisable  for  all  soils  that  tend  to  be  compact  or  to  be 
lumpy.  The  soil  is  left  in  the  rough,  with  no  attempt  to 
take  or  level  it  down  to  a  smooth  surface.  The  action 
of  the  frost  on  the  exposed  lumps  gives  a  finer  crumb 
structure. 

The  gardener  can  also  improve  the  physical  condition 
of  soils  by  the  addition  of  certain  materials.  Heavy 
clay  soils  are  benefited  by  addition  of  coarse  vegetable 
matter,  as  poorly  rotted  manure,  leaves,  and  grass  clip- 
pings. It  is  well  to  add  these  in  autumn  so  that  the  till- 
age in  the  following  spring  will  mix  them  well  with  the 
soil.  The  addition  of  sand  or  lime  will  also  make  com- 
pact and  lumpy  soils  more  finely  granular.  Sandy 
soils  tend  to  be  so  loose  that  they  dry  out  too  readily ; 
this  condition  is  improved  by  the  addition  of  well-rotted 
humus  and  manure. 

Careful  treatment  required  for  clay  soil.  Clay  soils 
tend  to  become  compact  and  to  break  up  into  coarse 
granules  or  clods  when  tilled.  If  such  a  soil  is  too  dry 
when  spaded,  it  is  lumpy.  If  it  is  too  wet,  it  will  be 
made  lumpy.  No  soil  should  be  spaded  except  when  it  is 
dry  enough  to  crumble  readily  when  rolled  in  the  hands. 
An  easy  way  to  test  this  is  to  squeeze  a  small  handful  of 
the  soil  into  the  form  of  a  ball,  quite  as  one  makes  a 
snowball  (Fig.  39).  If  it  sticks  together  in  a  ball  and 


The  Soil  of  the  Garden 


61 


FIG.  39.  The  clay  soil  is  easily  made  into  a  ball,  while  the  loam  falls  apart. 
This  shows  that  the  loam  is  in  good  condition  for  working,  and  that  the  clay  is 
too  wet. 

leaves  the  imprint  of  the  hand  upon  it,  then  it  is  too  wet 
for  working.  But  if,  on  being  released,  it  crumbles 
and  falls  apart,  it  is  in  suitable  condition  for  working. 
By  spading  at  the  right  time  and  in  the  right  manner 
the  physical  condition  of  clay  soils  can  be  much  improved. 

The  best  garden  soil.  The  best  soil  for  the  garden 
from  the  standpoint  of  its  physical  condition  is  a  mixture 
of  (i)  the  remains  of  plants  (humus),  (2)  sand  of  various 
sizes,  and  (3)  silt  or  clay,  with  no  one  of  these  in  excess. 

Such  soil  is  called  loam.  It  tends  to  remain  year 
after  year  with  the  particles  arranged  loosely  in  fine 
granules.  It  is  easily  kept  in  this  condition  by  tillage. 
Its  physical  condition  enables  the  fine  fibrous  roots  of 
plants  to  penetrate  it  easily.  But  repeated  tillage,  the 
addition  of  lime  if  it  is  needed,  and  supplying  humus  in 
manure  and  compost  (page  65)  will  in  a  few  years 
do  much  to  improve  the  physical  condition  of  any 
soil. 


62  Gardening 


FIG.  40.  Spreading  manure  over  the  garden.  The  coarse  lumps  should  be 
broken  up  and  the  material  spread  evenly.  Many  gardeners  prefer  putting  the 
manure  into  the  trench  direct  and  spading  it  under,  instead  of  scattering  it  over 
the  surface  of  the  soil. 

SOIL   FERTILITY 

The  soil  is  more  than  a  place  for  the  roots  of  plants  to 
grow.  It  supplies  water  and  raw  food  materials  on 
which  the  plant  lives.  //  is  itself  raw  food  material 
for  plants,  as  plants  actually  take  into  themselves  certain 
compounds  contained  in  the  soil  and  change  these  mate- 
rials into  substances  which  build  the  plants  up.  A  rich 
soil  is  one  that  supplies  in  large  amounts  the  materials 
that  the  plant  needs.  Of  these,  aside  from  water,  the 
ones  that  are  most  often  lacking  in  sufficient  amounts 
are  nitrogen,  potassium,  phosphorus,  and  lime. 

The  food  materials  are  constantly  being  removed 
from  a  cultivated  soil  in  the  crops  harvested,  and  are 
also  being  lost  in  the  drainage  water.  Therefore  it  is 
often  necessary  to  furnish  new  supplies  of  these  materials 
to  keep  a  soil  from  becoming  poorer  and  less  productive. 
They  may  be  added  to  the  soil  as  manures,  compost, 


The  Soil  of  the  Garden  63 

or  commercial  fertilizers ;  and  it  is  often  advisable  that 
these  should  be  liberally  supplied. 

Manures.  The  best  fertilizers  for  gardens  are  manures. 
A  ton  of  the  usual  quality  of  stable  manure  that  has  not 
been  exposed  to  the  weather  contains  8.3  pounds  of  po- 
tassium (or  10  pounds  of  potash),  10  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
and  3  pounds  of  phosphorus  (or  5  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid),  which  have  a  combined  value  of  about  $3.00. 
Besides  supplying  these  foods,  manure  improves  the 
physical  condition  of  soil  by  the  humus  which  it  contains. 
A  ton  of  manure  will  cover  about  4  square  rods  of  area. 
As  stable  manure  is  deficient  in  phosphorus,  it  is  advis- 
able to  add  about  2-£  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  to  this  area. 

Coarse  manure  may  be  applied  in  autumn  and  plowed 
or  spaded  under,  but  there  will  be  some  loss  of  its  sub- 
stances in  the  soil  water.  Well-rotted  manures  and  rich, 
readily  soluble  manures,  like  poultry  manure,  should  be 
supplied  at  the  time  of  spading  in  spring.  These  may 
be  plowed  or  spaded  in,  or  a  part  may  be  spread  on  the 
surface  after  the  spading  is  done,  and  raked  into  the  up- 
permost layers  of  the  soil. 

Poultry  manure  can  often  be  secured  by  the  gardener. 
It  is  the  richest  in  nitrogen  of  all  farm  manures ;  but 
this  nitrogen  is  easily  lost  by  decomposition,  particularly 
during  warm  weather,  or  if  the  manure  is  subject  to 
leaching.  To  conserve  its  materials  and  use  them  to 
the  best  advantage,  the  following  rules  should  be  ob- 
served : 

The  poultry  manure  should  be  dried  quickly  and 
kept  so  until  used.  Wood  ashes  should  never  be  mixed 
with  manures,  and  especially  with  poultry  manure,  as  they 


64 


Gardening 


cause  chemical  changes 
which  lead  to  the  loss  of 
nitrogen.  This  will  also 
occur  if  lime  is  used  to 
"  sweeten "  the  drop- 
ping boards  under  the 
roost.  Dry  dirt,  sand, 
peat,  land  plaster,  or 
sifted  coal  ashes  should 
be  used  instead.  These 
absorb  liquids  and  help 
to  dry  the  manure. 

The  dropping  boards 
should  be  cleaned  fre- 
quently and  the  accumu- 
lated manure  spread  out 
in  a  dry  place,  or  stored 
in  boxes  or  barrels  and 
kept  away  from  rain 
until  the  soil  is  plowed 
or  spaded  in  spring. 

As  poultry  manure 
is  relatively  much 
richer  in  nitrogen  than 

in  phosphorus  or  potash,  it  is  good  practice  to  add 
to  every  10  pounds  of  the  fresh  manure  4  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate  and  2  pounds  of  kainite  (a  mineral  con- 
taining about  12  per  cent  potash)  together  with  coal 
ashes,  dry  muck,  or  other  absorbents.  These  may  be 
spread  on  the  dropping  boards,  and  the  resulting  mixture 
stored  dry  until  used. 


FIG.  41.  Refuse  from  the  garden  should 
be  made  into  compost  to  enrich  the  soil. 
In  the  photograph  above,  which  was  taken 
in  the  autumn,  lime  is  being  spread  over 
the  garden  to  kill  insects  and  to  "  sweeten  " 
the  soil  for  the  next  season. 


The  Soil  of  the  Garden 


Poultry  manure  is  so 
rich  that  it  ivill  injure 
plants  if  applied  thickly. 
The  hard,  rounded  balls 
should  be  broken  up 
and  pulverized.  This 
may  be  done  by  spread- 
ing out  the  dry  mixed, 
product  on  a  board 
platform  or  a  walk  and 
breaking  up  the  lumps 
with  strokes  of  the  back 
of  a  spade.  As  a  rule 
the  manure  should  be 
spaded  into  the  soil  just 
before  planting  of  seed. 

Compost.  Well-rotted 
vegetable  matter  is 
called  compost.  It  may 
be  made  from  manure 
which  is  placed  in  flat- 
topped  piles  so  as  to 
absorb  much  rainfall 
and  hasten  rotting.  If 


FIG.  42.  A  Long  Island  picture  showing 
how  the  soil  is  "trenched"  and  humus 
added.  Two"  trenches  are  dug  about  3 
feet  apart  and  then  filled  with  manure  and 
soil  in  alternate  layers.  Then  another  set 
of  two  trenches  is  dug,  the  first  one  be- 
tween the  two  shown  in  the  picture,  and 
the  second  just  beyond  the  last  trench 
filled.  This  process  is  repeated  until  the 
necessary,  Water  Can  be  whole  garden  has  been  covered.  The  soil 
j  j  i  4.  1  4.1,  is  improved  in  three  ways  by  this  method  : 

added  to  keep  the  mass    first>  humus  is  added .  second)  the  soil  from 

moist        If       it       is       fre-     below  is  brought  to  the  surface ;  and  third, 

the  soil  is  made  deeper,  giving  the  roots 

quently  forked  over  and    more  space  for  growth. 

kept  moist,  it  will  rot 

rapidly  without  "  burning."    Layers  of  sod,  dry  soil,  or 

peat  may  be  added  to  absorb  the  liquid  materials. 


66  Gardening 

Compost  may  be  made  also  from  the  vegetable  wastes 
of  the  kitchen  that  decay  readily,  from  weeds,  grass 
clippings  from  the  lawn,  leaves  in  autumn,  and  other 
vegetable  matter  of  any  kind.  These  should  all  be 
saved  and  composted  either  with  manure  or  separately. 
Good  compost  is  very  valuable  in  forcing  and  growing 
transplanted  seedlings  in  flats  in  greenhouses,  hotbeds, 
and  cold  frames,  as  well  as  for  enriching  the  soil  of  the 
garden.1  Every  garden  should  have  a  compost  pile. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  add  to  compost  diseased  or 
insect-infested  plants,  for  this  may  facilitate  the  spread 
of  fungous  diseases  or  insect  pests. 

Commercial  fertilizers.  A  commercial  fertilizer  fur- 
nishes for  the  use  o^plants  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and 
potassium.  Nitrogen  is  usually  obtained  in  sodium 
nitrate,  ammonium  sulfate,  and  in  "  tankage "  (the 
refuse  of  slaughterhouses).  Phosphorus  is  usually  ob- 
tained from  tankage  and  from  acid  phosphate,  which 
is  made  by  treating  rock  containing  phosphates  with 
sulfuric  acid.  Potassium  is  obtained  mostly  from  potas- 
sium sulfate  and  potassium  chlorid,  both  of  which  are 
mined  from  the  earth. 

A  fertilizer  that  supplies  all  of  the  three  elements, 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium,  is  called  a  "  com- 
plete "  or  "  general  "  fertilizer ;  one  that  supplies  only 
one  or  two  of  these  is  called  an  "  incomplete  "  or  "  spe- 
cial "  fertilizer. 

A  good  general  fertilizer  for  garden  crops  should 
contain  in  a  form  that  plants  can  use,  by  guaranteed 

1  Compost  should  not  be  used  for  seed  beds  or  in  seed  pans,  as  it  is 
too  rich  for  young  seedlings. 


The  Soil  of  the  Garden  67 

analysis,  about  4  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  10  per  cent  potash.  Such  a  fertilizer 
may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  about  3  to  5  pounds  to 
every  100  square  feet  of  area. 

The  following  mixture,  in  accbrdance  with  the  propor- 
tions just  given,  has  been  recommended1  as  best  for 
general  garden  crops : 

Sodium  nitrate 125  lb.,  yielding  20  Ib.  nitrogen 

Ammonium  sulfate  ....   100  lb.,  yielding  20  lb.  nitrogen 

Tankage 600  lb.,  yielding  40  lb.  nitrogen  and 

54  lb.  phosphoric  acid 

Acid  phosphate 775  lb.,  yielding  109  lb.  phosphoric  acid 

Potassium  sulfate  or  potas- 
sium chlorid 400  lb.,  yielding  200  lb.  potash 

2000  lb.  (total  weight) 

This  mixture  is  used  at  the  rate  of  about  1000  pounds 
to  an  acre,  or  about  i\  pounds  to  100  square  feet  of 
area ;  but  on  small  home  gardens  as  many  as  5  pounds 
to  100  square  feet  of  area  may  profitably  be  used. 

Such  a  fertilizer  may  be  bought  with  the  different 
substances  mixed  together,  or  the  gardener  may  buy 
the  materials  separately  and  mix  them  for  himself. 
One  pound  of  sodium  nitrate,  i  pound  of  potassium 
sulfate,  and  3  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  mixed  thor- 
oughly, will  make  up  an  amount  sufficient  for  use  on  an 
area  of  100  square  feet.  By  cooperative  buying  the 
members  of  a  garden  class  or  club  can  often  save  money 
on  the  fertilizer  that  they  use. 

Many  soils  are  deficient  in  phosphorus.  As  manure 
is  also  deficient  in  this  element,  acid  phosphate  should 

1  Van  Slyke,  Fertilizers  and  Crops. 


68  Gardening 

be  added  when  manure  is  used  on  such  a  soil.  Wood 
ashes  are  rich  in  potassium,  and  whenever  they  are 
available  they  may  be  applied  directly  to  the  soil  at  the 
rate  of  10  pounds  to  every  100  square  feet.  They  should 
be  previously  stored  in  such  a  manner  that  leaching  is 
prevented. 

Soils  vary  greatly  in  character,  even  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  garden.  It  is  often  advisable  to  obtain  from 
the  state  experiment  station  or  from  the  county  agri- 
cultural supervisor  special  information  regarding  the 
particular  needs  of  a  soil,  especially  if  one  must  depend 
upon  commercial  fertilizers. 

Lime  for  acid  soils.  Most  garden  crops  will  not  grow 
well  in  an  acid  soil.  In  humid  regions,  especially,  soils 
tend  to  become  acid.  Lime  and  other  substances  that 
keep  the  soil  "  sweet  "  are  lost  in  the  drainage  water, 
and  the  addition  of  humus  and  the  decay  of  vegetable 
matter  also  increase  soil  acidity. 

The  acids  in  the  soil  can  be  changed  by  the  use  of 
lime.  Finely  pulverized  limestone  or  air-slaked  or 
water-slaked  (hydrated)  lime  are  best  for  sweetening 
soils.  Never  use  quicklime  unless  it  has  been  slaked, 
as  it  is  strongly  caustic  and  will  "  burn  up  "  the  humus 
in  the  soil.  Do  not  spread  lime  in  the  row  at  the  time 
seed  is  sown,  as  excess  of  lime  in  contact  with  roots  is 
injurious. 

Water-slaked  or  hydrated  lime  is  widely  used  in  making 
plaster  mortar  and  can  usually  be  bought  in  small  quan- 
tities. From  5  to  10  pounds  of  ground  limestone,  or  half 
as  much  of  hydrated  lime,  may  be  spread  on  an  area  of 
100  square  feet.  Clay  soils  require  more  lime  than 


The  Soil  of  the  Garden 


69 


FIG.  43.  Lime  should  be  applied  when  no  wind  is  blowing.  Even  a  miid 
breeze  will  carry  much  of  the  lime  away  and  prevent  an  even  distribution  over 
the  surface. 

sandy  soils.  Lime  should  not  be  plowed  or  spaded  under, 
either  in  autumn  or  in  spring,  but  should  be  scattered 
over  the  surface  and  thoroughly  raked  in  shortly  be- 
fore planting.  One  application  every  three  years  should 
be  sufficient. 

Other  benefits  of  lime.  Small  amounts  of  the  prin- 
cipal elements  in  lime  (calcium  and  magnesium)  are  used 
by  plants  in  building  up  their  bodies,  and  these  elements 
combine  with  decayed  organic  material  to  form  nitrates, 
which  the  plants  take  in  and  use  as  the  source  of  their 
nitrogen.  Lime  in  soils  also  leads  to  chemical  changes 
which  make  it  easier  for  plants  to  secure  the  potassium 
and  phosphorus  in  rock  particles.  Lime  improves  the 
physical  condition  of  the  heavy  clay  soils  by  making 


Gardening 


them  finely  granular. 
It  tends  to  break  up 
compact,  coarsely  lumpy 
soils.  Finally,  lime  in 
soil  increases  the  activ- 
ity of  certain  bacteria 
which  cause  organic 
matter  to  decay  and 
break  down  into  plant 
foods. 

Thus  lime,  both  di- 
rectly and  indirectly, 
benefits  garden  plants  in 
many  ways,  and  its 
moderate  application 
will  improve  most  gar- 
den soils. 

A  rich  soil  needed 
for  the  garden.  Often 
the  home  vegetable  gar- 
den is  small  and  the 
main  aim  is  to  produce 
as  much  food  as  possible 
from  it.  A  very  fertile  soil  is  necessary  for  this  kind 
of  intensive  gardening;  for  it  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  many  soils  that  will  produce  fair  field  crops  will 
yield  only  meager  crops  of  certain  vegetables.  This  is 
largely  because  most  garden  crops  are  heavy  feeders, 
requiring  especially  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  and 
potassium.  To  yield  abundantly  they  must  grow  on  a 
soil  that  supplies  them  plentifully  with  these  materials. 


FIG.  44.  Effect  of  lime  on  the  growth  of 
roots.  These  Swiss  chard  plants  were 
planted  at  the  same  time  and  each  had 
the  same  growing  conditions,  except  that 
lime  was  added  to  the  acid  soil  in  which 
the  plant  at  the  left  was  grown. 


The  Soil  of  the  Garden  71 

The  excellent  qualities  of  garden  vegetables  also  de- 
pend upon  a  rapid  growth  that  can  take  place  only  in 
a  rich  soil.  Unless  thus  grown,  salad  plants  like  lettuce, 
Swiss  chard,  and  celery  will  be  of  poor  quality ;  root 
crops  like  radishes,  turnips,  and  beets  will  be  small, 
woody,  and  of  poor  flavor ;  and  the  quality  of  other 
crops  likewise  will  be  poor. 


Proper  tillage,  good  drainage,  the  repeated  addition  of 
humus,  manures,  and  other  fertilizers,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  lime  will  in  a  few  years  improve  almost  any  soil 
until  it  will  produce  excellent  vegetables  in  abundance. 
And  to  have  a  garden  that  really  pays,  we  must  do 
this ;  for  gardening  is  more  expensive  for  a  given  area 
in  cost  of  seed  and  in  labor  than  is  agriculture. 

Questions 

How  are  soils  formed?  What  is  humus?  About  how  many 
particles  are  there  in  an  ounce  of  coarse  sand?  in  an  ounce  of 
fine  clay  ?  What  are  soil  granules  ?  What  size  are  the  granules  in 
a  soil  that  is  favorable  for  the  growth  of  plants  ?  What  kind  of 
soil  is  likely  to  become  compact? 

Why  is  it  important  that  a  soil  be  loose?  How  may  soil  be 
kept  in  good  condition?  What  soils  require  most  careful  treat- 
ment? Why?  How  can  we  determine  if  a  soil  is  dry  enough 
for  working?  What  is  the  best  kind  of  soil  for  a  garden?  In 
what  sense  is  soil  itself  raw  food  for  plants?  What  substances 
needed  by  plants  are  most  often  lacking  in  soils? 

In  what  ways  do  manures  improve  soils?  Why  must  special 
care  be  taken  when  poultry  manure  is  used  ?  What  is  compost  ? 
How  is  it  made? 

What  are  commercial  fertilizers  ?  How  do  they  benefit  crops  ? 
How  does  lime  improve  soils?  When  and  how  should  it  be 
applied?  Why  is  an  especially  rich  soil  needed  in  a  garden? 


72  Gardening 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1.  To  observe  how  soil  is  made.     Search  inroad  cuts,  along  river 
banks,  and  other  places  where  rock  is  exposed.     Note  that  in 
some  of  these  places  the  compact  rocks  are  crumbling  into  the 
small  particles  that  make  soil. 

2.  To  observe  the  formation  of  humus.     Examine  the  surface 
soil  in  a  forest,  or  if  this  cannot  be  done,  examine  a  compost  heap. 
Note  that  this  soil  contains  parts  of  plants  in  various  stages  of 
decay.     Observe  also  its  color  and  texture.     What  is  the  color  of 
soils  that  lack  humus? 

3.  To  observe  soil  particles  and  granules.     Crush  and  examine, 
first  with  the  eye  and  then  with  a  hand  lens,  dry,  finely  pulverized 
samples  of  various    soils   (clay,  humus,  sand,  and    loam).     In 
which  are  the  particles  or  granules  largest  ?     smallest  ?     Compare 
as  to  uniformity  in  the  size  of  the  granules. 

4.  To  show  the  effect  of  working  soils  when  they  are  too  wet. 
Secure  some  dry,  finely  powdered  clay  or  soil  in  which  clay  pre- 
dominates, and  two  large  shallow  dishes  or  pans.     Place  one 
quart  of  the  clay  in  the  first  dish,  flood  with  water  and  stir,  leaving 
the  clay  in  irregular,  sticky  masses. 

Place  the  same  amount  of  clay  soil  in  the  second  dish,  add  the 
same  amount  of  water  as  was  added  to  the  first  dish,  but  do  not 
stir. 

Allow  the  soil  in  the  two  dishes  to  become  quite  dry.  Note  that 
the  soil  that  was  stirred  is  in  hard  lumps  which  do  not  readily 
break  up  into  granules.  Is  the  soil  in  the  second  dish  more 
easily  cultivated? 

This  experiment  shows  how  particles  of  clay  soil  may  become 
grouped  into  large  lumps  if  worked  before  the  excess  of  water 
has  dried  out.  Why  is  a  soil  of  coarse  lumps  unsuited  for  plant- 
ing seeds  and  growing  crops?  What  should  the  gardener  do  to 
such  a  soil? 

Repeat  the  above  experiment,  using  first  sand  and  then  loam. 
Are  these  soils  more  easily  cultivated  when  wet  than  is  a  clay  soil  ? 

5.  To  determine  when  a  garden  soil  is  dry  enough  for  cultivation. 
Fill  a  flat  two-thirds  full  of  clay  soil,  another  with  the  same  amount 
of  sand,  and  a  third  with  loam.     Flood  each  to  the  top  of  the  flat 
with  water.     Allow  the  excess  of  water  to  drain  off  through  the 
cracks  in  the  bottom  of  the  flat.     Test  each  soil,  as  described 


The  Soil  of  the  Garden  73 

on  page  60,  to  determine  if  it  is  ready  for  tillage.  Repeat  the 
test  at  intervals  of  a  few  hours.  Which  becomes  ready  for  tillage 
first?  which  last?  Make  similar  tests  in  the  garden  before 
beginning  the  work  of  spading  or  of  surface  tillage  after  a  rain. 

6.  To  test  soils  for  acidity.     Obtain  a  few  strips  of  blue  litmus 
paper.     Dig  up  some  of  the  soil  to  be  tested  and  place  it  in  a  pan. 
Then  insert  three  or  four  pieces  of  the  litmus  paper  in  the  soil, 
making  sure  that  the  soil  particles  are  pressed  firmly  against  the 
paper.     Examine  one  of  the  strips  at  intervals  of  several  minutes, 
or  until  one  of  them  has  turned  red.     The  red  color  shows  the 
presence  of  acid.     If  at  the  end  of  half  an  hour  the  litmus  paper 
shows  no  change  of  color,  the  soil  is  free  from  acids. 

7.  To  solve  a  few  of  the  gardener's  problems  in  supplying  com- 
mercial fertilizer  to  the  soil.    Work  on  the  following  exercises 
until  you  are  sure  that  you  could  solve  similar  problems  in  your 
own  garden. 

A .  A  garden  plot  is  40  feet  wide  and  50  feet  long.     How  many 
pounds  of  general  commercial  fertilizer  will  the  gardener  need  if 
he  desires  to  supply  5  pounds  of  the  fertilizer  to  every  100  square 
feet  of  the  garden  ? 

B.  If  a  gardener  wishes  to  make  100  pounds  of  the  fertilizer 
mentioned  on  page  67 ,  how  many  pounds  of  each  of  the  ingredients 
should  be  purchased?     (The  quantities  given  on  the  page  just 
referred  to  will  make  2000  pounds  of  fertilizer.)     What  part  of 
2000  is  100?    Therefore,  what  part  of  the  total  amount  of  each 
ingredient  given  for  the  2000  pounds  is  needed  for  100  pounds? 

C.  A  gardener  can  obtain  only  (i)  sodium  nitrate,  (2)  acid 
phosphate,  and  (3)  potassium  sulfate.     He  wishes  to  purchase 
enough  of  each  to  make  100  pounds  of  a  mixed  fertilizer  yielding 
3^  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  10  per  cent 
potash.     Find  the  amount  of  each  ingredient  needed,  as  follows : 

(1)  There  should  be  enough  sodium  nitrate  in  the  100  pounds 
to  yield  3^  pounds  of  nitrogen.     Sodium  nitrate  is   15  per  cent 
nitrogen;    one  pound  has  rtnr  pounds  of    nitrogen;     therefore, 
it  will  require  as  many  pounds  of  sodium  nitrate  as  rtnr  is  con- 
tained in  3^.     What  is  this  amount  ? 

(2)  Calculate  the  number  of  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  required. 
(Acid  phosphate  is  about  14  per  cent  phosphoric  acid.)     How 
many  pounds  of  the  acid  phosphate  are  therefore  needed  to  sup- 
ply the  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  required  ? 


74  Gardening 

(3)  A  pound  of  potassium  sulfate  is  54  per  cent  potash.     How 
many  pounds  of  potassium  sulfate  are  needed  to  supply  the  potash 
required  ? 

(4)  Add  the  three  amounts  (or  the  amounts  nearest  the  next 
even  number  for  any  that  are  not  even).     If  the  total  is  less  than 
100  pounds,  the  difference  indicates  the  amount  of  dry  sand  or 
earth  that  is  to  be  included  in  the  mixture. 

D.  Is  it  possible  to  make  a  mixture  of  sodium  nitrate,  acid 
phosphate,  and  potassium  sulfate  that  will  contain  8  per  cent 
nitrogen,  10  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  15  per  cent  potash? 
(Work  out  this  problem,  basing  your  calculation  on  the  facts 
learned  in  the  previous  problems.  Determine  the  amount  neces- 
sary for  each  ingredient.) 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 

WATER  AND   THE  PLANT 

The  thirsty  Earth  soaks  up  the  rain, 
And  drinks  and  gaps  for  drink  again ; 
The  plants  suck  in  the  Earth,  and  are 
With  constant  drinking  fresh  and  fair. 

ABRAHAM  COWLEY 

WATER  forms  a  large  part  of  a  living  plant.  Lettuce 
and  various  root  crops,  for  example,  are  nine-tenths 
water.  The  living  matter  of  the  cells  is  bathed  in  it, 
and  the  whole  structure  of  a  plant,  from  the  finest 
rootlets  to  the  most  delicate  tissues  in  the  leaves,  is 
more  or  less  filled  with  it.  For  good  growth,  garden 
plants  require  large  amounts  of  water,  and  the  gardener 
is  interested  in  knowing  how  this  may  be  provided  for 
them. 

How  water  is  used  by  a  plant.  All  the  various  mineral 
substances  needed  by  the  plant  can  be  taken  in  only 
when  they  are  dissolved  in  water.  They  are  all  obtained 
from  the  water  that  is  in  the  soil.  Furthermore,  every- 
thing that  is  moved  about  inside  the  plant  is  carried 
in  water;  only  minerals  and  foods  that  are  dissolved 
in  water  can  pass  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to 
another. 

Great  quantities  of  water  are  evaporated  (transpired) 
from  the  leaves  of  plants.  For  every  pound  of  dry 
material  in  a  mature  plant,  500  pounds  of  water  have 
passed  through  that  plant  during  its  life.  An  acre  of 
thrifty  vegetables  in  a  single  season  uses  1000  tons  of 
water,  which  is  equal  to  about  9  inches  of  rainfall  over 
the  acre.  A  large  sunflower  in  a  single  day  of  mid- 
summer transpires  more  than  a  pint  of  water. 

75 


Gardening 


These  facts  explain 
why  plants  quickly  suf- 
fer if  they  are  not  pro- 
vided with  a  continuous 
and  abundant  supply  of 
water. 

How  roots  are 
adapted  for  work  of 
collecting  water.  The 
roots  are  the  water- 
gathering  organs  of  the 
plant.  To  gain  an  idea 
of  how  well  these  organs 
are  adapted  to  their 
work,  germinate  some 
radish  seeds  on  moist 
blotting  paper  and  ex- 
amine the  roots  of  the 
seedlings  as  they  grow. 

The  young  growing 
roots  are  very  small, 
brittle,  and  tender,  and 
they  quickly  dry  out 

A   mustard  seedling  soon  after         h       exposed  tc  the  air. 
Note  the  deh- 


FIG.  45- 

germinating  on  a  blotter. 

cate  root  hairs. 


At  first  there  is  only  a 
primary   or    first    root, 

which  ends  in  a  blunt  point.    It  grows  rapidly  in  length, 

and  side  branches  soon  develop  which  are  quite  like  the 

tip  of  the  older  root. 

Thus  rootlet  after  rootlet  appears  until   there  is  a 

much-branched  system  with  many  growing  ends.     As 


Water  and  the  Plant 


77 


long  as  the  plant  lives 
and  is  active,  the  root 
system  continues  to 
branch  and  send  out  a 
mass  of  young  rootlets. 
When  their  limit  of  depth 
and  breadth  is  reached, 
branches  continue  to  fill 
in  the  space  between 
with  a  network  of  the 
fine  roots. 

A  short  distance  be- 
hind the  tip  of  a  rootlet 
there  is  a  growth  some- 
what resembling  cotton 
fibers.  If  we  look  at  this 
with  a  reading  glass  or 
a  simple  pocket  mag- 
nifying glass,  we  find 
that  this  is  composed  of 
delicate  hair-like  out- 
growths from  the  root 
itself.  Each  of  these 
root  hairs  is  a  slender 
tube  that  has  grown  out  - drain  off  the  water  from  them- 
from  the  side  of  a  cell.  It  is  a  rod-shaped  structure, 
closed  like  a  finger  of  a  glove  at  its  outer  end,  and  by 
its  growth  it  thrusts  itself  in  among  the  soil  particles 
and  absorbs  water  and  mineral  compounds  in  solution. 
In  this  way  the  absorbing  surface  of  the  rootlet  is  enor- 
mously greater  than  if  no  root  hairs  were  developed. 


FIG.  46.  Young  radish  seedling  with  soil 
clinging  to  root  hairs.  The  root  hairs 
penetrate  among  the  soil  particles  and 


Gardening 


Root  hairs  live  for 
only  two  or  three  days. 
They  die  away  on  the 
older  parts  of  the  root- 
let, and  new  ones  are  all 
the  time  developing  just 
back  of  the  growing 
root  tips.  This  habit 
makes  it  necessary  for 
the  rootlets  to  keep  on 
growing  if  the  plant  is 
to  be  supplied  with 
water. 

What  happens  when 
a  plant  wilts.  When  a 
plant  has  plenty  of 
water,  the  cells  are  well 
filled  and  rounded  out, 
so  that  they  press 
tightly  against  one  an- 
other and  the  whole 
plant  stands  up  firm  and 
strong.  If  the  plant 
lacks  water,  the  cells  are 

only  partly  filled  and  the  leaves  and  other  parts  of  the 
plant  wilt  and  droop.  In  this  condition,  to  a  great 
extent,  growth  and  the  manufacture  of  food  stop  ;  and  if 
a  garden  plant  remains  wilted  continuously  for  two  or 
three  days  and  nights,  it  generally  dies. 

It  does  not  take  a  plant  long  to  wilt  if  it  is  pulled  and 
left  in  the  open  air.     It  wilts  just  as  quickly  while  stand- 


FiG.  47.  A  seedling  carelessly  pulled  wilts 
much  faster  than  one  carefully  dug  up. 
The  plant  at  the  left  wilted  rapidly  be- 
cause many  of  its  roots  were  broken  off 
and  those  remaining  were  unprotected  by 
soil  particles.  The  seedling  at  the  right 
was  carefully  lifted  from  the  soil  at  the 
same  time ;  it  will  remain  unwilled  much 
longer  than  the  other  one. 


Water  and  the  Plant  79 

ing  in  the  garden  if  a  continuous  supply  of  water  does 
not  flow  into  it  through  the  roots.  When  insects  (such 
as  the  squash  borer)  burrow  into  stems  and  cut  off  and 
eat  out  the  vessels  that  carry  water  upward,  the  plant 
soon  wilts  and  may  die  (page  330).  The  clubroot  disease 
of  cabbage  (page  289)  often  interferes  with  the  work  of 
the  roots  to  such  an  extent  that  the  infested  plant  wilts 
during  the  day  and  seldom  grows  up  to  be  a  good  plant. 
The  cucumber  wilt  is  caused  by  a  bacterium  that  enters 
the  vessels  and  by  its  growth  interferes  with  the  ascent 
of  water,  which  soon  causes  the  plants  to  wilt  and  die. 
Such  injuries  as  these  make  evident  to  us  how  necessary 
is  the  supply  of  water  to  all  parts  of  the  plant.  To  re- 
place that  which  is  lost  to  the  air  there  must  be  a  cor- 
responding intake  through  the  roots  from  the  soil. 

Knowing  these  facts,  it  is  easy  to  understand  why  in 
transplanting  seedlings  the  young  plants  must  not  be 
allowed  to  become  dry ;  why  they  need  protection  from 
the  sun  and  air  until  they  get  a  new  root  system  estab- 
lished ;  why  in  cultivating  and  weeding  care  should 
be  used  not  to  damage  the  roots  of  crops ;  why  cer- 
tain diseases  and  insect  pests  must  be  combated ; 
and  why  it  is  so  important  for  the  soil  of  the  garden  to 
have  in  it  sufficient  water  for  the  growing  crops. 

Capillary  water  in  the  soil.  As  the  water  from  rain  or 
snow  or  irrigation  sinks  through  the  upper  layers  of  the 
soil,  some  of  it  sticks  to  the  soil  particles  and  is  held  over 
and  between  them  as  a  thin  film  on  their  surfaces.  This 
water  is  called  capillary  water.  A  good  soil  holds  large 
amounts  of  capillary  water  in  this  way,  and  as  the  root 
hairs  push  in  among  the  granules  they  come  in  contact 


8o  Gardening 

with  these  films  and  are  able  to  draw  water  from  them 
for  the  use  of  the  plant. 

Free  water  in  the  soil.  In  a  soil  that  is  poorly  drained, 
the  water  not  only  forms  a  coating  over  the  granules,  but 
it  may  also  fill  the  spaces  between  them.  This  water 
which  fills  the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles  and 
granules  is  called  free  w ater.  It  can  be  drained  off.  It 
is  not  held  in  the  soil,  but  is  free ;  and  like  the  water 
in  a  pond  or  lake,  it  will  flow  to  a  lower  level  if  it 
has  the  opportunity.  The  roots  of  garden  plants  cannot 
live  in  a  soil  that  continually  retains  free  water,  because 
the  water  shuts  out  the  air  from  between  the  soil  granules. 
There  is  not  enough  air  present  in  such  a  soil  to  keep 
the  roots  alive,  and  if  a  garden  site  is  undrained  so  that 
the  level  of  the  free  water  is  near  the  surface,  the  plants 
will  have  only  a  few  shallow  roots.  These  will  be  able 
to  supply  only  small  amounts  of  water,  and  in  times  of 
heat  and  drought  the  plants  will  suffer. 

Wet  soils  are  cold.  Water  absorbs  more  heat  in  be- 
coming warm  than  does  soil  or  air.  Hence  a  soil  that  is 
saturated  with  water  remains  cold  longer  than  a  soil  con- 
taining much  air  (especially  in  spring).  If  the  excess  of 
water  is  removed  by  drainage,  its  place  is  taken  by  air 
which  may  be  warmer  and  which  at  any  rate  becomes 
heated  more  quickly. 

Soils  that  are  naturally  "  warm  "  or  "  early  "  are  those 
which  hold  almost  no  free  water  in  the  upper  layers. 
They  are  usually  well-drained  soils  or  soils  of  loose 
texture,  like  a  sandy  loam.  "  Cold  "  or  "  late  "  soils  are 
those  that  retain  much  water.  They  are  usually  fine- 
grained, like  clay,  or  are  poorly  drained  or  poorly  tilled. 


Water  and  the  Plant 


81 


FIG.  48.     On  the  surface  of  the  stone  is  a  thin  film  of  capillary  water ;  at  the 
bottom  is  a  drop  of  free  water. 

Draining  a  garden.  On  the  farm  a  well-drained  plot 
can  usually  be  selected  for  the  garden.  Cities  and 
villages  are  usually  so  well  drained  that  simple  ditching 
about  the  garden  or  perhaps  across  it  is  all  that  is  needed 
to  carry  off  the  excess  water  from  the  soil.  But  in  low- 
lying  land  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  plant  the  crops 
on  narrow  ridges  with  open  ditches  between,  in  which  the 
free  water  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  rapid  evaporation. 
Loosening  a  soil  by  deep  spading  and  by  adding  vege- 
table matter  improves  the  drainage  of  fine,  compact  soils. 

When  the  water  can  be  led  to  a  lower  level,  tiling,  or 
underground  drainage,  is  an  excellent  means  of  drain- 
ing a  "  wet "  garden.  For  literature  on  such  a  special 


82  Gardening 

method  of  treatment  one  should  write  to  the  agricultural 
college  of  his  state. 

It  is  well  to  lay  out  a  garden  that  is  inclined  to  be 
wet  in  beds  rather  than  in  rows  for  level  culture  (page 

93)- 

How  to  tell  if  a  soil  is  poorly  drained.  To  determine 
whether  a  plot  is  too  wet  for  garden  purposes,  sink  a 
hole  in  the  earth  with  a  spade.  If  free  water  runs 
into  the  hole  and  stands  within  18  inches  of  the  surface, 
the  soil  is  poorly  drained.  In  such  a  soil,  water  will 
often  stand  close  to  the  surface  or  even  on  the  surface 
after  heavy  rains.  In  early  spring  this  condition  may 
do  no  damage  except  to  delay  planting,  but  if  with  ordi- 
nary rainfall  the  soil  is  watersoaked  in  midsummer, 
drainage  is  necessary.  The  roots  of  garden  crops  need 
to  go  down  deeply  into  the  soil,  but  they  cannot  thrive 
below  the  level  of  the  free  water,  which  may  happen  to 
be  near  the  surface. 

In  draining  a  garden,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a 
ditch  will  remove  the  free  water  only  when  it  leads  to 
lower  levels,  and  also  that  it  will  remove  water  only  to 
the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch. 

Increasing  capillary  water  in  the  soil.  By  tillage  and 
by  adding  vegetable  matter,  the  gardener  can  greatly  in- 
crease the  power  of  the  soil  to  furnish  water  to  the  grow- 
ing crops.  A  coarse-grained  and  lumpy  soil  does  not 
hold  much  water.  It  dries  out  quickly  after  a  rain,  and 
capillary  water  does  not  rise  into  it  from  lower  levels  in 
abundance  or  with  uniformity  because  of  the  large  and 
irregular  air  spaces  between  the  lumps.  Good  tillage 
makes  such  soils  more  finely  granular,  so  that  they  can 


Water  and  the  Plant 


FIG.  49. 


Draining  a  garden  site 

soil,  garden  plants  cannot  grow  in  it. 


States  Relations  Service 
Unless  the  free  water  is  removed  from  the 


84  Gardening 

take  in  more  of  the  water  that  falls  and  hold  more  of  it 
as  capillary  water. 

In  a  fine-grained,  compact  soil  the  air  spaces  between 
the  particles  and  granules  are  small.  In  wet  weather 
these  small  spaces  are  readily  filled  with  free  water,  which 
is  then  difficult  to  drain  away.  Another  deficiency  of  a 
compact  soil  is  that  much  of  the  water  that  falls  on  it 
runs  off  without  sinking  in  and  being  held  as  capillary 
water.  Plowing  and  spading  break  up  and  loosen  com- 
pact soils,  increasing  the  air  spaces  between  the  granules 
and  making  it  easier  for  water  to  enter  and  move  to  lower 
levels. 

Spading  under  manure  and  vegetable  matter  makes  a 
soil  looser.  Such  materials  also  add  to  the  water-holding 
power  of  the  soil,  for  the  pieces  of  decaying  plant  material 
hold  water  like  little  sponges  and  give  it  up  to  the  roots 
when  needed. 

Sandy  soils  hold  less  water  than  clay  soils.  Therefore, 
well-rotted  manure  often  greatly  improves  them.  Lime 
loosens  a  heavy  clay  soil  and  makes  it  more  granular, 
thus  irnproving  it  for  garden  use. 

Movement  of  water  in  the  soil.  The  roots  of  vig- 
orously growing  plants  quickly  absorb  most  of  the  cap- 
illary water  that  is  on  the  soil  particles  which  they  touch. 
But  more  water  creeps  to  these  particles  from  the  sur- 
rounding soil  or  from  lower  levels.  The  movement  of 
this  water  through  the  soil  is  quite  like  that  of  oil  rising 
through  the  wick  of  a  burning  lamp.  Having  the  soil  in 
good  physical  condition  makes  it  possible  for  the  water  to 
move  easily  through  it  and  thus  to  come  within  reach  of 
the  plant's  roots. 


Water  and  the  Plant  85 

A  fine,  loose  condition  of  the  soil  also  allows  the 
roots  to  penetrate  more  deeply  and  to  spread  more 
widely,  thus  increasing  the  water  supply  available  to 
the  plant. 

Conserving  the  soil  moisture.  Water  evaporates  from 
the  surface  of  a  soil  into  the  air.  Then  more  water 
rises  from  below,  through  capillary  action,  and  this  also 
is  lost  to  the  air.  Thus  in  time  the  soil  becomes  dried 
out,  and  plants  often  suffer  because  the  water  they  need 
has  evaporated  into  the  air. 

If  a  mulch  of  fine  manure,  straw,  or  leaves  is  placed 
over  the  soil,  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  is  checked, 
and  the  soil  moisture  is  conserved;  celery,  eggplant, 
Chinese  cabbage,  endive,  and  lettuce  are  benefited  by 
such  mulches,  especially  in  dry  periods  or  when  grown  on 
dry,  sandy  soils. 

A  mulch  may  also  be  made  of  a  layer  of  loose  surface 
soil.  If  the  top  inch  of  soil  is  raked  loose  and  fine,  it 
quickly  dries  out,  and  because  its  connection  with  the 
soil  below  is  somewhat  broken,  the  water  does  not 
readily  rise  into  it  by  capillary  action.  This  loose  sur- 
face soil,  therefore,  acts  as  a  covering  for  the  lower  soil, 
keeping  the  moisture  that  is  in  it  from  being  lost  to  the 
air.  Frequent  shallow  cultivation  of  growing  crops  is 
very  essential  to  maintain  a  surface  mulch. 

Watering  the  garden.  Crops  use  large  amounts  of 
water,  and  even  under  the  best  methods  of  culture  the 
natural  supply  may  be  insufficient  for  their  needs.  It  is 
then  often  advisable  to  supply  water  by  irrigation.  This 
subject  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  "  The  Care  of 
Growing  Crops  "  (page  207). 


86  Gardening 

Effects  of  the  gardener's  work  on  the  supply  of  soil 
water.  From  what  we  have  now  learned,  it  will  be  under- 
stood that  garden  plants  can  use  only  the  capillary  water 
of  the  soil ;  that  free  water  about  roots  is  harmful  to  them ; 
and  that  to  fit  a  soil  for  garden  purposes,  the  free  water 
must  be  drained  off  and  the  soil  made  to  hold  as  much 
capillary  water  as  possible. 

Nearly  everything  the  gardener  does  to  the  soil  affects 
the  water  supply  in  it.  Drainage  has  for  its  direct  aim 
the  removal  of  free  water,  which  makes  it  possible  for  the 
roots  of  crops  to  penetrate  deeply.  The  addition  of 
lime,  manure,  and  compost  causes  the  free  water  to  drain 
off  more  quickly  and  increases  the  amount  of  capillary 
water  held  in  the  soil.  Plowing  and  spading  also  increase 
the  power  of  the  soil  to  hold  capillary  water,  and  one  of 
the  reasons  for  the  cultivation  of  growing  crops  is  to 
retain  the  water  in  the  soil  for  the  use  of  the  plants. 


The  gardener,  therefore,  in  large  measure  controls  the 
supply  of  water  in  the  soil.  He  removes  the  excess  that 
is  harmful ;  he  increases  the  power  of  the  soil  to  hold 
water  in  suitable  form  for  his  plants ;  he  saves  or  con- 
serves the  water  present  in  the  soil ;  and  he  supplies 
water  when  it  is  needed.  By  a  study  of  the  soil  and  of 
the  water  in  it,  he  can  do  the  things  that  regulate  the 
water  supply  to  the  needs  of  his  crops. 

Questions 

About  what  proportion  of  the  entire  living  plant  is  composed 
of  water  ?  What  are  some  of  the  uses  of  water  to  a  green  plant  ? 
Give  some  facts  that  explain  why  plants  need  an  abundant  and 
a  continuous  supply  of  water. 


Water  and  the  Plant 


FIG.  50.     Seedlings  germinating  in  earthen  saucer. 

Explain  how  the  roots  of  a  plant  develop.  How  are  roots 
adapted  to  the  work  of  getting  water  from  soil?  What  happens 
when  a  plant  wilts  ? 

Why  must  a  newly  transplanted  plant  have  special  care? 
WThat  is  capillary  water?  free  water?  Do  plants  grow  best 
in  a  soil  containing  free  water  or  only  capillary  water?  Why? 
Why  do  wet  soils  remain  cold  longer  than  a  soil  that  is  not  so  wet  ? 

How  can  you  determine  if  a  soil  is  poorly  drained  ?  How  can  a 
gardener  increase  the  water-holding  power  of  a  soil?  Describe 
the  movement  of  water  in  soils.  How  can  the  gardener  conserve 
soil  moisture? 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

i .  To  observe  root  hairs.  Germinate  seeds  of  cabbage  or  radish 
on  blotters  placed  between  saucers,  keeping  the  blotters  moist 
with  capillary  water  (Fig.  50).  (Petri  dishes  are  better  than 
saucers  if  the  school  has  them.)  With  a  hand  lens  examine  the 


88 


Gardening 


root  hairs  that  form,  noting  their  number  and  size.    On  what 
part  of  the  root  are  they  actively  growing?    On  what  part  are 


FIG.  51.    Experiment  to  show  the  power  of  different  soils  to  hold  capillary 

water. 


they  dying?  Describe  a  root  hair.  How  do  these  root  hairs 
increase  the  total  amount  of  root  surface?  How  does  this  affect 
the  power  of  the  plant  to  absorb  water? 

2.  To  show  the  upward  movement  of  capillary  water  in  soil. 
Tie  a  piece  of  thin  cotton  cloth  securely  over  the  large  end  of  a 
lamp  chimney.     Fill  with  dry  garden  soil.     Place  in  a  shallow 
dish  containing  a  pint  of  water  and  leave  thus  until  the  following 
day.     How  high  does  the  free  water  rise?     How  high  does  the 
capillary  water  rise  ?     How  can  it  be  kept  from  evaporating  from 
the  surface  of  the  soil  ? 

Now  carefully  lift  the  chimney  with  contents,  allowing  the  free 
water,  if  there  is  any,  to  drain  back  into  the  dish.  Measure 
the  amount  of  water  left  in  the  dish.  How  much  water  has  moved 
up  into  the  soil  as  capillary  water  ? 

During  dry  weather  is  there  an  upward  movement  of  water 
from  the  deeper  parts  of  the  soil  ? 

3.  To  compare  the  power  of  different  soils  to  hold  capillary  water. 
Tie  thin  cotton  cloth  over  the  small  end  of  four  lamp  chimneys. 
Fill  one  with  sand,  one  with  clay,  one  with  humus,  and  one  with 
loam  (all  dry  and  finely  powdered).     Arrange  as  shown  in  Figure 


Water  and  the  Plant  89 

51.  Pour  gently  and  slowly  a  pint  of  water  into  the  top  of  each 
chimney.  The  water  that  drips  through  is  free  water ;  that  which 
is  kept  has  become  capillary  water.  Compare  as  to  time  when 
water  begins  to  drip,  length  of  time  the  dripping  continues,  and 
amount  of  water  retained. 

How  does  the  addition  of   humus  affect  the   water-holding 
power  of  sandy  soils?    How  does  sand  improve  a  clay  soil? 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 

PLANNING  THE   GARDEN 

Let  us  sit  down  by  the  crackling  fire  and  lay  out  plans 
for  the  year. 

Old  Farmer's  Almanac 

THE  arrangement  of  every  home  vegetable  garden 
should  be  worked  out  according  to  a  plan  made  several 
weeks  in  advance  of  the  earliest  planting  dates.  This 
will  allow  time  for  buying  seed  before  planting  time. 
The  plan  should  show  the  kinds  of  crops  to  be  grown,  the 
relative  location  of  each,  and  the  space  to  be  given  to 
each  kind. 

Such  points  as  the  size  of  the  garden  plot,  the  kind  of 
soil,  the  drainage,  the  exposure  to  sunlight,  how  the 
garden  is  to  be  cultivated,  the  local  climatic  conditions, 
the  particular  needs  of  the  crops  to  be  grown,  the  family 
tastes  and  preferences  for  vegetables,  and  whether  the 
family  will  be  away  during  the  summer,  are  all  matters 
to  be  considered  in  planning  the  garden.  It  will  help 
greatly  in  deciding  what  crops  should  be  grown  and  how 
much  of  each  it  is  best  to  plant,  if  a  definite  plan  of  the 
garden  is  made. 

Making  the  plan.  In  drawing  a  plan  it  is  best  to  draw 
to  a  scale.  This  means  that  the  garden  itself  is  first 
measured  and  then  the  plan  of  it  is  drawn  so  that  each 
inch  on  the  plan  represents  a  certain  number  of  feet 
in  the  garden.  If  the  garden  is  small  the  plan  may  be 
drawn  on  a  scale  of  2  feet  to  the  inch  ;  for  the  moderate- 
sized  garden  it  is  better  to  use  a  scale  of  4  feet  to  the 
inch ;  and  for  the  very  large  garden  a  scale  of  8  feet  to 
the  inch  may  be  necessary.  In  this  way,  by  using  the 
divisions  on  an  ordinary  ruler  (  such  as  ^  inch,  £  inch, 

90 


Planning  the  Garden 


i    Corn,  (late} 

, 

3 
i 

£ 

4 

i 
j 

2    Corn,  (medium} 

3    Corn  (medium} 

f  Corn  (early  } 

5    Corn  (early} 

6    Tomatoes 

7    Tomatoes 

il 
4  ?r 

t:^ 

^  ^ 

| 

|1 

&   Tomatoes 

9   Celery 

i  o    Cauliflower  (early}  followed  by  pe  -tsai 

11    Peas\                          (  beets  (transplanted} 

12    Peas     f0Ucwe£1:y  \beets  (transplanted} 

13    Peas                             beets  (transplanted  } 

14   Peas)                          {beets  (transplanted} 

15  3eets  (from  seed  } 

is   Beets  (from  seed  } 

17    Carrots 

18    Carrots 

19    Cauliflower  (early}}    r  v        ji    [kale 

20    Cabbage  (early}       )                          \kale. 

11    Buskbeans  }  XJfcmeJ  £.(&**%**** 

T>      11           \JOLLOUDZ  a.  vy  \ 
22  jDUsh  beans  )                        {Seas 

23  Lettuce  |  Clewed  ^y  f  ^e 

24   Lettuce  J                           [  cabbaqe  (laie} 

25  3eets  (ea  rly  }.,  tra  nspla  n  ted  /  -^//^^  e  J  fa  \beans 

26   Sects  (early  }  ,  transplanted]                        \  beans 

27    Swiss  chard 

28    Carrots  (early}  -followed  by  celery 

ii 

29    Onions  (front  seed} 

30    Onions  (from  sets}  followed  by  'kale 

FIG.  52.    Plan  of  a  home  garden.    The  ground  is  kept  occupied  during 
entire  season. 


the 


Gardening 


FIG.  53.  A  photograph  of  the  garden  the  plan  of  which  is  shown  in  Figure  52. 
With  only  two  seasons'  experience  the  owner  has  one  of  the  most  successful 
gardens  in  his  community. 

or  £  inch)  to  represent  a  foot,  the  plan  may  be  easily 
drawn  and  distances  on  any  part  of  it  may  be  deter- 
mined at  once  by  merely  laying  the  ruler  on  the  por- 
tion to  be  measured. 

Several  plans  may  have  to  be  drawn  before  the  most 
satisfactory  arrangement  is  found.  The  final  plan  should 
be  drawn  on  heavy  cardboard  and  kept  for  ready  refer- 
ence. It  should  show  exactly  how  many  rows  and  how 
many  feet  of  rows  of  each  variety  are  to  be  planted. 
With  such  a  plan  one  can  determine  the  amount  of  seed 
required  for  each  variety. 

A  few  general  directions  regarding  the  making  of  a 
garden  plan  may  be  given.  Tall  growing  plants,  like 
corn,  pole  beans,  peas  on  brush  or  wire,  tomatoes  trained 


Planning  the  Garden  93 

to  stakes,  and  Jerusalem  artichoke  should  be  placed 
so  that  they  will  shade  the  smaller  plants  as  little  as 
possible.  Along  a  fence  or  at  the  north  or  west  side  of 
a  garden  is  a  good  location  for  tall  plants.  They  may 
also  be  used  to  good  advantage  as  screens  in  front  of  a 
chicken  yard  or  about  a  compost  pile  (Fig.  160).  Peren- 
nials like  rhubarb,  asparagus,  and  strawberries  should  be 
grouped  at  an  end  of  the  garden  where  they  least  interfere 
with  the  work  of  tillage. 

The  vegetables  that  are  planted  first  in  spring  may  be 
grouped  together  and  the  work  of  spading  and  planting 
be  done  at  intervals  as  later  plantings  are  made. 

Planting  in  rows.  Most  gardens  should  be  laid  out  in 
rows  which  run  the  entire  length  or  width  of  the  garden 
or  to  necessary  paths.  If  a  horse  is  used  in  cultivating 
the  garden,  the  rows  should  run  the  long  way  and  be 
spaced  about  2^-  to  3  feet  apart.  When  a  wheel  hoe  is 
used,  a  width  of  12  to  36  inches,  according  to  the  crop, 
is  convenient.  In  small  gardens,  where  the  work  is  all 
done  by  hand,  the  rows  may  be  much  closer  for  many  of 
the  smaller  growing  crops ;  thus  more  plants  can  be 
grown  on  a  given  area.  Radishes,  for  example,  may  be 
spaced  in  rows  6  inches  apart,  and  carrots  as  close  as  8 
or  10  inches  apart.  A  distance  of  18  inches  is  very  suit- 
able for  many  crops  under  hand  cultivation. 

Planting  in  beds.  When  the  garden  plot  is  of  very 
small  size  and  the  work  is  all  done  by  hand,  the  garden 
may  often  be  laid  out  in  beds  to  good  advantage,  as 
shown  in  Figure  55.  The  narrow  paths  between  the  beds 
enable  children  to  walk  freely  about  without  injury  to 
the  plants.  The  work  of  tillage  and  weeding  can  be  done 


94 


Gardening 


1  ^ 

Com     /W/y)           ^c7*rajfl 

le» 

artichoke  -^ 

V                            ^J-^                              "f     ^OTn^ost 

f, 

r/J,  9f>d  rdC  1LS              —   •  

{sOWt 

C/Z,  <f/U.  ru£  LU3 

Corn 

K 

Corn.   (rH.ediu.rn) 

*                f 

Corn 

1"         i 

Corn 

3"  1 

Corn    flate}         tree 

Youny                                te.f.'*^ 
a&ble.  6ree                                   "^ 
i                                                     5 

< 

Pole  beans  f 

|                                                 ,     ^ 

Pole  leans  J  (Xextuekv 

,  U.      .  lettuce  (•)  ".     .   ".P§ 
.-.,.    »*«•«•    V 

+-  -wonder)  
Pole  c>ean<s  { 

\ 

*      *     'a.net*  tovnaloes  C")    0*      ' 

* 

StuA.  lima,  peans 

Kohlrabi.  fMooHdly  {%%%•£"" 

iSu.tnm.er  squash  :J^e(i)2eataHdspivia 

ch 

Pe-tsai,  followed.  %y  celery 

-I 

Cnrrpfa 

~&,  «-  'j*~ 

\ 

f^&TMn.'lrJJS 

p 

3     fc       Cabl>a<re  date!  and 

^ 

endive  bcituecn  rvtvs 

>P 

C  /  '/* 

I 

c",,..-,.,.  -i  -,^7 

2 

iJuLstjJ 

t 

Lettuce  '                         eay  plant 

F^ 

farslev                          Leetes 

1 

ft-ttai     -followed  h>    £e-tsa  i 

Onions  (setslfollowed  by  celery 

Lettuce                          'pe-tsai 

Mangels  fainter  food  Jvr  chickens) 

* 

r 

Sirttwlyerty 

Tomatoes  («)                  vj 

i 

bed 

„      i 

i 

1 

H; 

•D        J.                                                                                                ^ 

0M&                                                    -« 

f  lowers 

Mmael  kerte                                           ^ 

•f. 

V 

\ 

1  ^Ritsh  beans,  followed  PV  celerv          * 

^ 

1  planted  between  -rotas 

j 

-  -CaVba.jes(severa.l  kinds)  

Scale  6  ""  —  j"  "*  To"*  ""  if*"3 

FIG.  54.     Plan  of  author's  garden. 


offeet 


Planning  the  Garden  95 

from  the  paths,  for  all  parts  of  the  bed  are  within  easy 
reach.  Walking  in  the  beds  among  the  plants  is  thus 
avoided ;  therefore  the  soil  is  not  compacted  by  tram- 
pling and  it  remains  much  more  uniformly  loose.  When 
the  seeds  are  planted,  one  should  use  a  board  to  walk  on. 

At  planting  time  the  beds  should  be  level  with  the 
paths  or  only  slightly  rounded  above.  Walking  in  the 
paths  soon  makes  them  lower  than  the  beds,  and  then 
water  will  run  through  them.  If  the  garden  is  poorly 
drained,  the  paths  may  be  arranged  to  lead  to  a  shallow 
ditch,  dug  along  one  side  of  the  garden  so  as  to  lead  to 
lower  levels.  Excess  water  is  thus  carried  away  after 
each  rain.  The  garden  shown  in  Figure  55  was  laid  out 
in  beds  chiefly  because  it  needed  the  drainage  that  the 
paths  gave. 

Special  points  to  plan  for.  In  planning  a  vegetable 
garden,  one  should  have  especially  the  three  following 
aims  in  mind : 

(1)  To  grow  different  sorts  of  vegetables  which  give 
pleasing  variety  and  a  continued  and  adequate  supply 
of  vegetables  for  the  table. 

(2)  To  avoid  overplanting  of  any  one  crop  at  one  time. 

(3)  To  keep  the  soil  fully  occupied  and  busy  in  pro- 
ducing crops. 

What  is  meant  by  these  three  aims  and  how  the 
gardener  may  plan  for  them  will  now  be  discussed  briefly. 

Planting  for  variety.  The  home  gardener  grows  at 
least  several  kinds  of  vegetables.  Such  standard  vege- 
tables as  corn,  beans,  cabbage,  and  tomatoes  are  all 
quite  different  in  the  food  products  that  they  yield, 
in  their  appeal  to  the  taste,  in  their  uses,  and  in  the  time 


96  Gardening 

of  the  season  when  they  are  ready  for  the  table.  By 
increasing  the  number  of  kinds  of  vegetables  grown, 
greater  variety  is  obtained.  Fortunately  the  number 
of  different  vegetables  that  can  readily  be  grown  is 
large  and  affords  a  wide  variety  of  vegetable  foods. 

Avoiding  overplanting.  Probably  the  mistake  most 
often  made  by  the  inexperienced  gardener  is  the  planting 
of  too  much  of  one  variety  at  one  time.  If  this  is  done 
the  entire  product  is  likely  to  "be  ready  for  table  use  at 
about  the  same  time,  and  there  may  be  more  than  can 
be  used,  especially  if  the  product  is  perishable.  This 
results  in  waste  of  food,  waste  of  space  in  the  garden, 
and  waste  of  labor. 

To  avoid  overplanting,  either  (i)  plant  less  of  any  one 
variety  at  a  time,  and  make  successive  plantings  of  it  on  § 
different  dates ;  or  (2)  plant  seed  of  several  varieties 
which  mature  at  different  times.  Seed  of  a  single  early 
variety  of  corn,  for  example,  may  be  planted  at  intervals 
of  two  weeks ;  or  the  seeds  of  early,  medium,  and  late 
varieties  may  all  be  planted  at  about  the  same  time  in 
spring. 

The  later  plantings  of  a  vegetable  sometimes  fail 
because  the  summer  weather  may  be  unfavorable  for 
the  proper  growth  of  the  young  plants.  In  a  hot,  dry 
summer,  late  plantings  of  corn  are  likely  to  become 
dwarfed  and  yield  poorly  developed  ears.  As  a  rule, 
successive  plantings  are  most  successful  on  a  rich  soil 
that  is  well  supplied  with  water. 

The  planting  of  different  varieties  of  the  same  vege- 
table is  one  of  the  best  ways  of  obtaining  successive 
crops.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  grow  a  few  plants  of  the 


Planning  the  Garden 


97 


DITCH 


1 

t 
| 

"3 

£ 

s; 

XXX 

XXX 

Cabbaqe 

XXX 
XXX 

^ 

-•NXOOXOOX 

Head,  lettuce, 
o  X  o  o  X  o 
and  tomatoes 
X  o  o  X  o  o  X 

1 

t 

*Q 

1 

ooxooXooXooXooXooXooXooXooXooXoo 

Tfead  lettuce  (°  °) 

XooXoox°oXoox  ooXooXooXooXooXooX 

a«<£  tomatoes  (x) 

ooxooxo  oxooxo  0x00X00X00X00x00X00 

i 

Parsnips 

Salsify 

•H 

Swiss 

x      x      x 
£ 
<    x     x     x 

1 
x'lx     x 

4 

XXX 

XXX 

Parsley 

chard. 

E 

£ 

Beets 

$ 

^ 

Carrots 

Onions 

XXX 

New  Zealand 
XXX 
Spinach 
XXX 

Pe-teai, 

Radish, 

Spring  and 

followed  T?y 
pepper 

autumn,. 

Scale 


jf  feet 


FIG.  55.  Plan  of  a  small  home  vegetable  garden  arranged  for  planting  in  beds. 
The  paths  between  the  beds  slope  down  to  a  ditch  at  one  side,  thus  insuring 
perfect  drainage. 


very  earliest  varieties  of  such  crops  as  peas,  beans, 
carrots,  radishes,  corn,  and  tomatoes,  even  though  these 
are  not  the  best  in  yield  or  in  flavor.  They  will  furnish 
food  in  advance  of  the  main  crop,  at  a  time  when  any 
"  new  "  vegetable  is  especially  relished  and  when  the 
market  prices  are  high. 

In  the  northern  planting  zones,  as  a  rule,  long-season 
crops  (like  corn  and  tomatoes)  are  not  suited  to  successive 
plantings.  For  such  vegetables,  the  planting  of  several 
varieties  is  the  best  way  to  provide  variety  and  avoid 
overplanting.  In  the  southern  sections,  successive 
plantings  may  be  made  of  the  long-season  crops.  The 


Gardening 


early  and  late  varieties 
of  certain  crops,  cab- 
bage for  example,  are 
best  planted  at  different 
dates. 

The  seed  catalogues 
list  "  novelties "  for 
early  and  late  planting ; 
but  care  should  be  taken 
in  selecting  such  vege- 
tables, especially  the 
early  kinds.  It  is  al- 
ways best  to  buy  seed 
of  standard  varieties 
from  reliable  firms,  for 
the  main  crop. 

Keeping  the  soil  oc- 
cupied. In  small  gar- 
dens, vegetables  should 
be  kept  growing  in 
every  bit  of  the  space 
throughout  the  garden 

season.  As  soon  as  the  yearly  crops  are  removed, 
others  should  take  their  places.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished either  by  companion  cropping  or  by  succession 
cropping. 

Early  vegetables  may  be  placed  together  with  slower- 
growing  and  later-maturing  plants,  either  in  the  same 
row  or  in  alternate  rows.  This  is  called  companion 
cropping.  The  early  crop  is  removed  before  the  late  crop 
has  reached  such  a  size  that  it  needs  all  the  ground. 


FIG.  56.  Successive  plantings  of  corn. 
By  repeated  plantings  it  is  often  possible 
to  have  a  supply  of  a  vegetable  through  a 
long  season. 


Planning  the  Garden 


99 


Lettuce  may  thus  be 
grown  with  tomato 
plants,  as  shown  in  Fig- 
ures 54  and  55.  Both 
the  lettuce  and  tomato 
plants  may  be  trans- 
planted to  the  garden 
at  about  the  same  time, 
or  the  lettuce  may  be 
planted  earlier.  The 
heads  of  lettuce  are 
gathered  about  the  time 
that  the  tomato  plants 
are  overshadowing  them. 
Lettuce  may  thus  be 
grown  with  peppers  and 
eggplants.  Lettuce  ma- 
turing in  5  weeks  may 
be  grown  with  cabbage 
that  matures  in  10  weeks. 
(See  Figure  58.)  Rad- 
ishes and  carrots  may  be  exPfnse  than  ,if  the 

each  separately. 

sown  in  alternate  rows 

6  inches  apart;    then  when  the   radishes  are   removed 

the  rows  of  carrots  are  left  12  inches  apart. 

Many  of  the  short-period  vegetables,  and  especially 
the  early  cool-season  crops,  mature  and  are  removed 
from  the  garden  in  time  to  grow  another  crop.  This 
second  crop  is  called  a  succession  or  follow  crop.  Some 
of  the  short-period  crops  are :  radishes,  lettuce,  peas, 
early  cabbages,  spinach,  turnips,  beets,  early  carrots, 


FIG.  57.  A  follow  crop  (carrots)  planted 
after  lettuce  has  been  removed.  Two  crops 
are  obtained  from  the  same  garden  space 
and  they  are  secured  with  less  labor  and 
were  prepared  for 


TOO 


Gardening 


. 


I'urdiie  University  Agrlc.  Exit.  sin. 

FIG.  58.     Lettuce  and  cabbage  grown  as  companion  crop.    The  lettuce  will 
soon  be  cut,  making  room  for  the  cabbages. 

early  potatoes,  and  even  early  corn,  early  beans,  and 
onions  from  sets.  Some  of  the  vegetables  that  may  be 
planted  as  follow  crops  are :  beets,  carrots,  late  cabbages, 
spinach,  celery,  pe-tsai,  chicory,  and  endive. 

Often  the  follow  crop  may  be  started  somewhat  before 
the  earlier  crop  is  removed,  by  planting  between  the  rows. 
Sweet  corn  may  be  planted  between  rows  of  peas; 
pe-tsai,  late  cabbages,  kale,  or  endive  may  be  set  out 
between  rows  of  early  sweet  corn  about  the  time  the 
latter  is  maturing ;  and  celery  may  be  planted  between 
rows  of  beans,  as  shown  in  Figure  54. 

As  the  gardener  gains  in  experience  in  growing  the 
various  garden  vegetables,  he  learns  their  habits  of 
growth,  the  length  of  time  required  for  each  to  mature, 
and  the  space  which  each  needs  under  the  conditions 
which  his  garden  affords.  In  the  small  vegetable  garden 


Planning  the  Garden  ,  IQI 


where  space  is  limited,  many  schemes  of  companion  and 
follow  cropping  can  be  worked  out  which  will  greatly  in- 
crease the  total  production. 

A  little  study  of  the  best  ways  of  grouping  vegetables 
for  companion  and  succession  crops,  as  suggested  in  the 
paragraphs  above,  will  help  the  gardener  so  to  plan  that 
overplanting  will  be  avoided.  He  will  then  have  a 
pleasing  variety  of  foods,  and  the  soil  will  be  kept  busy 
through  the  whole  growing  season.  Notes  regarding 
these  points  and  suggestions  for  improving  the  garden 
should  be  recorded  as  they  come  to  mind  during  the 
growing  of  crops.  Perhaps  the  notes  may  be  kept  on 
the  back  of  the  cardboard  on  which  the  plan  was  drawn. 
These  will  aid  greatly  in  making  plans  for  following 
seasons. 

Planning  school  gardens.  What  has  been  said  con- 
cerning the  planning  of  home  gardens  and  school  directed 
home  gardens  applies  equally  to  school  gardens,  especially 
to  demonstration  gardens  (page  10)  and  community  or 
grade  gardens  (page  6).  In  most  school  gardens  fewer 
vegetables  are  grown  than  in  a  home  garden,  and  the 
planning  is  therefore  somewhat  simpler. 

When  the  individual  plot  system  with  paths  between 
the  plots  is  used,  the  whole  area  is  laid  out  like  a  checker- 
board into  plots  of  uniform  size  with  straight  paths  run- 
ning entirely  across  the  area  (Figs.  2  and  3).  Stakes 
are  placed  at  the  corners  of  the  plots  and  the  paths  and 
plots  are  kept  in  line  throughout  the  season.  The  plots 
are  as  a  rule  all  planted  alike  with  the  rows  running  the 
same  way  and  with  the  different  kinds  of  vegetables  in 
the  same  relative  positions.  All  this  gives  uniformity  of 


192  Gardening 

t'*;V 

appearance  and  makes  for  order  and  neatness.     When 

the  paths  are  omitted  (Fig.  4),  the  rows  of  vegetables 
run  without  interruption  straight  across  the  entire  gar- 
den, and  stakes  are'  used  to  indicate  the  corners  of  the 
individual  plots. 

Questions 

Study  the  plans  given  in  Figures  52  and  54.  What  is  the  scale 
to  which  these  are  drawn  ?  How  large  were  the  gardens  ?  What 
crops  were  grown  and  how  many  feet  (in  rows)  were  planted  to 
each? 

When  is  it  best  to  plant  in  rows  and  when  in  beds  ?  In  planning 
a  vegetable  garden,  what  special  points  should  the  gardener  have 
in  mind  ?  What  are  the  usual  methods  of  planting  to  provide  for 
variety?  What  crops  are  most  likely  to  be  overplanted?  How 
can  overplanting  be  avoided  ?  What  are  companion  crops  ? 
Name  some  and  explain  why  they  can  be  thus  grown.  What  are 
follow  crops?  Name  some  crops  that  may  be  thus  planted. 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1.  To  draw  a  garden  plan.     Measure  the  garden  plot  and  draw 
an  outline  of  it  to  a  scale  (4  feet  to  i  inch  is  a  good  scale,  unless 
the  garden  is  unusually  large) .     Make  a  list  of  the  crops  you  wish 
to  grow.     If  there  are  to  be  any  perennials,  decide  where  they  are 
to  be  planted ;  also  decide  where  the  tall-growing  crops  will  stand. 
Determine  how  many  rows  can  be  allowed  for  each  crop,  and  then 
complete  the  plan  by  drawing  the  lines  for  each  row.     The  rows 
of  companion  and  follow  crops  may  be  indicated  by  dotted  lines 
and  the  other  rows  by  solid  lines. 

2.  To  observe  the  arrangement  of  other  gardens.     When  visiting 
other  gardens  in  your  neighborhood,  note  the  general  plan  of 
arrangement  of  each  garden.     Try  to  determine  the  good  fea- 
tures and  the  bad  features  of  each  plan,  and  then  try  to  discover 
how  the    arrangement    might    be    improved.      Note    especially 
whether  each  gardener  is  utilizing  his  garden  space  as  efficiently 
and  economically  as  possible. 


CHAPTER  NINE 

TOOLS  FOR  THE   GARDEN 

When  putting  away  the  tools  for  winter,  lay  aside  those 
which  need  repairs  so  that  they  will  not  be  forgotten. 

Old  Farmer's  Almanac 

IN  buying  the  first  tools  for  gardening  work,  it  is  best 
to  select  the  kinds  most  commonly  in  use.  Buy  only 
those  that  are  strongly  made  and  of  good  material.  Poor 
tools  break  easily  and  wear  out  quickly,  and  are  there- 
fore a  source  of  discouragement.  Most  hardware  stores 
carry  well-made  sets  of  the  most  important  garden  tools  ; 
especially  sets  consisting  of  a  hoe,  a  spade,  and  a  rake. 
These  may  be  had  in  small  sizes  suitable  for  women  and 
children.  Many  of  the  "  combination  "  tools  (two  or 
more  tools  attached  to  one  handle)  are  poorly  made  and 
are  so  clumsy  to  use  that  they  are  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. 

Tools  for  spading.  For  the  work  of  spading,  a  fork 
with  four  or  five  flat  tines  is  the  best  tool.  It  should  be 
strongly  made,  and  the  tines  should  be  of  good  steel  to 
stand  the  strain  of  the  work.  Even  then,  care  must  be 
used  not  to  break  or  bend  the  tines,  especially  if  the 
ground  is  stony.  An  ordinary  square  or  round-pointed 
spade  may  be  used  when  sod  is  to  be  spaded  under ; 
it  may  also  be  used  for  any  spading  work,  but  it  is 
harder  to  force  into  the  soil  than  a  fork,  and  it  does  not 
break  up  the  earth  so  finely. 

The  rake.  After  the  spading  fork,  an  iron  or  steel  rake 
with  numerous  fine  teeth  is  the  most  necessary  tool  in 
the  garden.  It  is  used  for  making  the  soil  fine  after 
spading  and  also  for  cultivating  the  growing  crops.  The 
rake  is  the  best  tool  for  making  a  good  surface  mulch  on 

103 


IO4 


Gardening 


FIG.  59.  For  a  small  garden  a  spading  fork,  hoe,  and  rake  are  all  the  tools  that 
are  necessary.  For  a  large  garden,  a  wheelbarrow  and  some  additional  tools 
are  needed.  Note  the  heavy  cord  for  laying  out  the  rows. 

the  soil  (page  85).  A  child's  steel  rake,  about  6  inches 
wide,  with  short,  fine  teeth,  is  very  useful  in  covering 
seeds  and  in  cultivating  when  crops  are  growing  in  rows 
too  close  together  for  the  use  of  the  larger  garden  rake. 
The  smaller  rake  makes  a  fine  and  shallow  surface 
mulch. 

Tools  and  accessories  for  planting.  In  laying  out  the 
garden  for  planting,  stakes  and  a  line  are  almost  neces- 
sary. A  hatchet  for  sharpening  and  driving  stakes  is 
convenient.  A  trowel  is  useful  in  lifting  and  resetting 
plants,  in  making  shallow  trenches  for  seed,  and  in  cover- 


Tools  for  the  Garden 


105 


ing  seeds  after  they  are 
sown.  A  dibble  is  used 
in  transplanting  plants, 
especially  into  flats ;  but 
a  planting  peg,  equally 
effective,  may  easily  be 
made  from  a  y-inch 
piece  of  a  broom  handle. 
Whittle  one  end  to  a 
tapering  but  blunt  point, 
and  round  off  the  other 
end  to  fit  into  the  hol- 
low of  the  hand.  Pegs 
of  smaller  size  (Fig.  no) 
may  be  made  for  trans- 
planting very  small  seed- 
lings. 

For  laying  out  and 
planting  in  straight  rows 
of  even  distance  apart, 
a  rule  or  measuring  stick 
and  a  line  and  stakes 
are  needed.  An  old 
clothesline  or  a  heavy 
cord  long  enough  to  reach  across  the  garden  will  do. 
If  the  garden  is  laid  out  in  beds,  the  line  should  be 
stretched  at  each  side  of  the  bed  and  the  rows  planted 
at  right  angles  to  these.  Using  a  planting  board  about 
8  feet  long  and  i  foot  wide  not  only  keeps  the  bed 
from  being  trampled  but  also  makes  it  easier  to  get  the 
rows  straight  and  properly  spaced. 


FIG.  60.  A  wheel  hoe  is  very  useful  in  a 
large  garden.  With  it  the  plants  can  be 
cultivated  much  more  rapidly  than  with  a 
hand  hoe  or  rake. 


io6 


Gardening 


A  basket  should  be 
used  for  carrying  and 
keeping  in  order  seed 
packages,  notebook  or 
record  with  garden  plan, 
and  such  small  tools  as 
trowel  and  peg. 

Tools  for  cultivating. 
In  cultivating  the  crops 
grown  in  a  small-sized 
garden,  a  rake  is  the 
most  valuable  tool.  Its 
repeated  use  to  maintain 
a  surface  mulch  will  pre- 
vent weeds  from  start- 
ing and  keep  the  garden 
in  good  condition.  Gar- 
den hoes  are  useful  for 
cutting  off  and  killing 
weeds  that  have  started 
to  grow,  in  keeping  paths 
clean,  and  in  making 

furrows  preparatory  to  seed  planting  or  irrigation.  A 
sharp-pointed  hoe  of  triangular  shape,  often  called  the 
"  Warren  hoe,"  is  excellent  for  working  in  compact 
ground.  A  hoe  of  this  kind  is  especially  useful  in  work- 
ing among  strawberries  and  other  plants  that  grow  in 
beds  or  matted  rows.  The  square  hoe  is  probably  the 
one  most  generally  used. 

Various    sorts    of    hand    weeders    and    long-handled 
cultivators,  such  as  the  "  Norcross  "  or  the  "  Pull  Easy  " 


FIG.  61.  When  the  day's  work  is  finished, 
the  tools  should  be  gathered  up  and  put 
away. 


Tools  for  the  Garden 


107 


FIG.  62.     If  the  soil  sticks  to  the  tools  they  should  be  washed  before  they  are 
put  away.    They  must  be  wiped  dry  after  washing,  so  that  they  will  not  rust. 


adjustable  cultivator,  are  used  by  many  gardeners. 
Several  types  of  wheel  hoes,  with  cultivator  and  rake 
attachments,  may  be  bought.  These  are  especially 
useful  in  cultivating  large  gardens  by  hand.  The  various 
attachments  are  easily  and  quickly  changed  as  desired, 
and  the  implement  is  light  and  easy  to  use.  The 
machine  covers  ground  rapidly  and  does  efficient  work. 
The  single- wheel  type,  such  as  is  shown  in  Figure  60,  is 
most  commonly  used.  Except  in  heavy  soils,  a  boy  or 
girl  of  fifteen  can  easily  operate  this  tool. 

Care  of  tools.  When  not  in  actual  use,  all  tools  should 
be  kept  clean  and  free  from  moisture  and  stored  in  a 
dry  place.  In  the  home  each  tool  should  have  a 
definite  place.  In  school  gardening  each  set  of  tools 


io8 


Gardening 


FIG.  63.  Right  and  wrong  ways  of  using  the  spading  fork.  Study  the  posi- 
tions of  the  hands  and  feet  of  the  man  on  the  right,  and  practice  until  you  are 
sure  you  can  spade  correctly. 

should  be  numbered  and  each  child  should  be  allotted 
a  number  and  be  held  responsible  for  the  tools  corre- 
sponding to  his  number.  Rust  should  never  be  allowed 
to  form  on  any  tool.  If  it  does,  it  should  be  removed 
by  vigorous  use  of  sandpaper. 

Perhaps  the  best  place  to  hang  tools  is  against  a 
wall  inside  a  building.  When  they  are  put  away  for 
the  winter,  a  coat  of  heavy  oil  or  oil  paint  should  be 
applied  to  the  unprotected  metal  surfaces  to  prevent 
rusting.  A  coating  of  melted  paraffin  or  of  vaseline  will 


Tools  for  the  Garden 


IOQ 


protect  them  if  no  oil  or 
paint  is  at  hand. 

Right  and  wrong  ways 
of  using  tools.  It  will 
pay  the  beginner,  and 
often  also  the  more  ex- 
perienced gardener,  to 
make  some  study  regard- 
ing the  easiest  way  of 
using  tools.  It  is  not 
easy  to  describe  on  paper 
the  best  methods.  In 
hoeing,  raking,  spading, 
carrying  water,  carry- 
ing flats,  and  using  the 
wheel  hoe,  one  should 
aim  to  keep  the  body 
well  balanced  and  in 
graceful  position  so  that 
the  tools  may  be  used 
without  undue  strain.  A 
few  illustrations  will  per- 
haps show  what  is  meant. 

In  Figure  63  the  student  to  the  left  is  forcing  a  spading 
fork  into  the  ground  with  the  fork  pressing  against  the 
instep  and  heel.  This  position  might  strain  and  injure 
the  foot,  since  it  is  not  intended  to  carry  weight  at  this 
point.  The  hand  grasping  the  end  of  the  handle  has  the 
palm  downward.  The  student  is  pushing  against  the 
spade  with  his  body.  In  lifting  the  soil,  he  must  step 
to  one  side  or  be  put  to  undue  strain  in  lifting  the  forkful 


U.  S.D.  A. 

FIG.  64.  The  proper  way  to  leave  tools  in 
the  garden,  when  not  in  use.  Make  it  a 
habit  to  stick  the  fork  in  the  ground  and 
to  turn  the  rake  and  hoe  down  when  they 
are  not  in  use. 


no   •'••  Gardening 

of  earth  out  and  away  from  the  body,  and  the  position 
of  the  left  hand  does  not  allow  him  to  turn  the  fork  and 
soil  over  with  ease. 

The  student  at  the  right  is  using  the  ball  of  the  foot 
to  force  the  spade  into  the  ground.  He  stands  in  a  posi- 
tion to  swing  the  left  hand  down  to  the  side  quite 
naturally  and  thus  lift  the  earth  and  turn  it  over  with  the 
hands  separated  at  each  side  of  the  body,  giving  excellent 
leverage,  perfect  balance  of  the  body,  and  an  easy,  swing- 
ing motion.  His  task  will  not  be  unduly  tiresome,  and 
his  work  will  be  effective. 

The  art  of  correctly  using  garden  tools  can  be  acquired 
only  by  practice,  but  a  practical  demonstration  by 
an  expert  will  greatly  aid  the  beginner  in  getting 
started  right.  Some  gardeners  can  use  a  hoe  or  rake 
all  day  without  becoming  very  tired.  Watch  such 
gardeners  and  learn  to  handle  your  tools  in  the  right 
way. 

When  such  tools  as  the  hoe  and  rake  are  laid  down  in 
the  garden,  the  cutting  edge  or  teeth  should  be  turned 
downward.  If  they  are  left  with  edge  or  teeth  upward, 
children  may  step  or  fall  upon  them  and  be  seriously 
injured. 

Questions 

Why  is  it  best  to  buy  only  well-made  tools  for  garden  work? 
What  are  the  two  most  necessary  garden  tools  ?  What  other  tools 
and  accessories  are  useful  in  the  home  or  school  garden?  What 
tools  are  used  for  cultivation,  and  how  are  they  used  ?  How  should 
tools  be  cared  for?  Why  is  it  important  to  learn  the  right  ways 
of  using  tools  ? 


Tools  for  the  Garden  in 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1.  To  become  familiar  with  garden  tools.     Examine  the  garden 
tools  displayed  in  store  windows  and  those  owned  by  your  friends. 
Look  for  advertisements  of  them  in  seed  catalogues  and  in  garden 
and  agricultural  magazines.     Be  sure  to  buy  tools  suited  to  your 
size  and  age,  and  to  the  work  you  wish  to  do  with  them. 

2.  To  learn  to  use  garden  tools.     Make  a  special  effort  to  learn 
the  easiest  and  most  effective  ways  of  using  the  various  tools. 
Practice  the  right  methods  as  explained  and  illustrated  in  this 
chapter.     Observe    teachers,    older    students,    and    experienced 
gardeners  who  are  using  tools. 

3.  To  learn  how  to  care  for  tools.     Observe  the  effect  of  poor 
care  of  tools.     Find  how  gardeners  store  their  tools  when  not  in 
use.     Practice  taking  good  care  of  your  own  tools. 


CHAPTER   TEN 

SEEDS  FOR  THE   GARDEN 

In  France,  we  are  told,  they  have  the  finest  vegetables  in 
the  world,  and  this  is  so  because  they  practice  the  most  care- 
ful seed  selection.  And  strange  to  say,  in  France  the  chil- 
dren are  taught  to  select  and  prepare  the  seeds  for  the 
garden. 

ARTHUR  D.  CROMWELL 

IF  a  row  of  radish  seeds  is  planted  in  the  garden  some 
of  them  will  produce  good  roots  earlier  than  others,  while 
there  will  be  some  poor  plants  which  do  not  produce 
fleshy  roots  at  all.  There  are  often  noticeable  differences 
in  the  size,  shape,  and  quality  of  beets  grown  from  the 
seed  of  a  single  packet.  Some  lettuce  plants  produce 
good  heads,  while  others  shoot  up  flower  stalks  without 
ever  forming  a  head.  Seedlings  grown  from  a  packet 


.7.  T.  Rosa,  Jr.,  Univ.  of  Mo. 

FIG.  65.  Seedlings  of  tomato,  all  grown  from  the  same  packet  of  seed, 
showing  difference  in  vigor.  Select  for  transplanting  only  the  largest  and 
best  plants,  for  those  that  are  wtak  in  the  seedling  stage  may  be  weak  during 
their  entire  lives. 

112 


Seeds  for  the  Garden 


of  tomato  seed  often  differ  greatly  in  natural  vigor; 
some  are  weak,  others  are  strong  and  vigorous  in 
growth  (Fig.  65).  Squash  plants  of  the  same  variety 


Richard  Wellington 

FIG.  66.  Best  fruits  of  different  plants  of  Hubbard  squash  from  commercial 
seed,  all  grown  under  the  same  conditions.  The  bottom  row  shows  the  best 
type  of  fruit.  The  upper  three  rows  are  especially  undesirable  because  of 
their  small  size  and  thin  flesh.  From  which  ones  would  you  select  seed? 


ii4  Gardening 

often  yield  fruits  that  differ  very  much  in  size,  shape, 
and  quantity  and  quality  of  flesh  (Fig.  66). 

Seeds  from  good  plants  are  more  likely  to  produce  other 
good  plants  than  are  seeds  from  poor  plants.  It  is  im- 
portant, therefore,  for  the  gardener  to  have  good  seeds 
that  have  come  from  the  kind  of  plants  that  he  wishes  to 
raise. 

Both  parents  of  a  plant  important.  Selecting  seed 
from  good  mother  plants  is  an  old  practice.  In  this  way 
man  has  long  attempted  to  improve  the  plants  which  he 
has  cultivated.  In  more  recent  times  attention  has  been 
paid  also  to  securing  a  good  plant  for  the  father  or  pollen 
parent  of  the  young  plant  in  the  seed.  Our  knowledge 
of  what  a  seed  is  and  of  how  it  is  formed  shows  why  this 
is  necessary. 

What  a  seed  is.  A  seed  contains  a  small  plant  with 
very  small  leaves,  stem,  and  root.  This  tiny  plant  is 
called  the  embryo.  Food  is  usually  stored  either  around 
the  embryo  or  in  its  first  leaves.  The  embryo,  together 
with  the  food,  is  inclosed  in  a  tough  coat  which  forms  the 
outside  of  the  seed. 

How  a  seed  is  produced.  To  learn  how  a  seed  is 
produced,  examine  the  flowers  of  the  garden  bean  (al- 
though almost  any  flower  may  be  studied  instead). 
Notice  that  the  bean  flower  has  four  different  kinds  of 
parts,  as  follows : 

(1)  At  the  outsidf  there  are  five  green  leaf -like  parts, 
which  cover  the  rest  of  the  flower  in  the  bud  stage. 
These  are  called  sepals. 

(2)  Next  are  five  somewhat  leaf-like  but  white  or 
colored  parts  called  the  petals.    These  are  of  different 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  115 

shapes  and  the  lower  two  are  rolled  together,  appearing 
like  one.  In  the  flowers  of  many  kinds  of  plants  the 
petals  are  all  alike. 

(3)  Inclosed    within   the   two   lower  petals   are   ten 
slender,  rod-shaped  stalks  bearing  at  their  summits  sao 


FIG.  67.  Parts  of  a  bean  flower :  a,  the  flower  complete ;  b,  parts  of  the  corolla ; 
c,  pistil ;  d ,  pistil  enlarged,  with  ovary  wall  cut  away  showing  ovules ;  e,  cluster 
of  stamens ;  /,  single  stamen.  All  are  natural  size  except  d  and  /,  which  are  en- 
larged 2\  times. 

like  structures.  These  are  called  stamens,  and  the  sacs 
are  called  anthers. 

(4)  In  the  very  center  of  the  flower  is  a  single  rod- 
shaped  organ,  called  a  pistil,  more  or  less  coiled  toward 
the  end. 

In  a  few  days  after  a  flower  of  the  bean  opens,  you  will 
observe  that  all  the  parts  about  the  pistil  wither  and  fall 
away.  In  most  of  the  flowers  the  pistil  remains  and 
grows  into  a  pod  containing  the  seeds.  . 

The  anthers  and  the  ovules.  If  the  two  lower  petals 
of  a  fully  opened  flower  of  the  bean  are  separated  and 
the  stamens  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  anthers 
have  split  open  and  are  shedding  a  'fine,  dust-like  powder. 


n6 


Gardening 


This  is  the  pollen,  and  under 
the  microscope  it  is  seen  to 
be  made  up  of  very  small 
rounded  bodies  which  are 
called  pollen  grains  or  micro- 
spores.  The  anthers  are, 
therefore,  sacs  that  contain 
minute  spores. 

The  enlarged  base  of  the 
pistil  is  called  the  ovary.  If 
this  is  slit  open  and  examined, 
small  rounded  bodies,  much 
smaller  than  the  anthers,  will 
be  found  in  it.  These  are  the 
ovules.  At  first  each  ovule 
contains  a  single  spore  and  is 
thus  a  spore  sac  like  the 
anther.  The  spore,  however, 
is  not  released  but  remains 
within  the  ovule,  and  from  it 
there  develops  a  cell  called  the  egg  cell.  In  some  flow- 
ers the  ovules  are  so  small  that  they  are  hard  to  see, 
but  in  the  young  fruits  the  ovules  which  are  becoming 
seeds  are  easily  seen  with  the  naked  eye. 

Pollination.  In  nearly  all  plants  the  pistils  will 
wither  and  drop  off  unless  pollen  from  the  same  kind  of 
plant  or  from. closely  related  plants  is  placed  on  the 
end  of  each  pistil ;  that  is,  on  the  stigma. 

In  some  garden  plants  like  corn,  cucumber,  and 
squash,  the  anthers  with  their  pollen  and  the  pistils 
with  their  ovules  are  in  separate  flowers,  and  the  pollen 


FIG.  68.  The  pistil  of  a  bean 
flower  at  the  stage  when  fertil- 
ization occurs;  magnified  about 
5  times.  A  portion  of  the  outer 
wall  of  the  ovary  is  cut  away  to 
show  the  ovules  in  place.  On  the 
stigma  and  on  the  brush  of  hairs 
near  the  stigma  are  several  pollen 
grains,  and  a  black  line  shows  the 
course  of  a  pollen  tube  through 
the  pistil  to  the  first  ovule. 


Seeds  for  the  Garden 


117 


must  be  carried  by  the  wind  or 
by  insects  from  the  flowers  with 
only  stamens  to  the  flowers  with 
only  pistils. 

In  other  garden  plants  (bean, 
pea,  salsify,  and  tomato  are  good 
examples)  the  stamens  and  pis- 
tils are  both  present  in  each 
flower.  But  even  in  these  the 
wind  and  the  insects  very  often 
carry  pollen  from  one  flower  to 
the  pistils  of  another. 

The  carrying  of  pollen  from 
the  stamens  to  the  pistils  is 
called  pollination.  If  the  pollen 
which  reaches  *a  pistil  is  from 
the  same  flower  or  another 
flower  of  the  same  plant,  it  is 

self-pollination.     If  it  is  from  a  different  plant,  it  is  cross- 
pollination. 

Fertilization.  After  the  pollen  grains  have  been 
placed  on  the  stigma,  a  tiny,  thread-like  tube  sprouts  out 
from  each  pollen  grain.  These  tubes  grow  downward, 
making  their  way  among  the  cells  of  the  pistil,  until  they 
reach  the  sac-like  structures  (ovules) .  The  pollen  tube 
enters  the  ovule  through  a  tiny  opening  that  is  present 
in  its  wall  and  continues  growing  until  it  reaches  the 
egg.  There  it  bursts  open  at  the  tip,  and  a  little  cell 
called  the  sperm  cell,  which  was  within  the  tube,  unites 
with  the  egg  cell.  This  uniting  of  a  sperm  and  an  egg 
cell  is  called  fertilization. 


FIG.  6g.  a  is  a  pollen  grain,  and 
b  and  c  show  pollen  tubes  which 
have  developed  from  grains  ger- 
minated on  sugar-agar.  The 
nucleus  of  the  vegetative  cell 
of  the  pollen  tube  is  shown  near 
the  end  of  the  longer  tube ;  the 
two  male  nuclei  are  shown  far- 
ther back  in  the  same  tube. 
The  grains  are  here  shown  220 
times  natural  size. 


n8  Gardening 

The  pollen  grain   must  reach  the  pistil  when  both 
are  in  the  right  condition  or  the  pollen  will  not  grow ; 


FIG.  70.     Stages  of  growth  in  the 
fruit  (pods)  of  the  bean. 


the  ovules  will  not  be  fertilized,  and  no 
fruit  or  seed  will  be  produced.  A  pol- 
len tube  fertilizes  only  one  ovule,  and  so  ' 
at  least  as  many  different  tubes  must 
grow  down  through  the  pistil  as  there 
are  seeds  which  develop  later. 

During  fertilization  the  egg  cell  and  a 
sperm  cell  combine  and  make  one  cell. 

This  new  cell   begins   to   grow   and 
divide,  and  this  growth  is  kept  up  until  the  embryo  is 
formed.     Meanwhile,  the  ovule  develops  into  the  seed, 
and  the  pistil  enlarges  to  become  the  seed  pod. 

Importance  of  the  pollen  parent.  The  little  plants  in 
the  seeds  borne  by  a  bean  plant  all  have  the  same  mother. 
But  the  embryos  in  two  seeds  that  lie  side  by  side  in 
the  same  pod  may  have  different  plants  for  pollen 
parents.  If  good  and  poor  plants  are  allowed  to  bloom 
together,  some  of  the  seeds  on  even  the  best  plants  may 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  119 

have  pollen  parents  that  are  quite  worthless.  Because 
of  this  fact  it  is  important  in  seed  growing  to  make  sure 
that  both  parents  are  good  plants. 

How  new  varieties  are  developed  under  cultivation. 
Occasionally  plants  that  are  different  from  the  others 
appear  in  a  crop,  giving  for  example  such  differences  as 
are  shown  in  the  illustration  on  page  127.  Sometimes 
the  difference  is  due  to  a  natural  variation.  The  new 
kind  of  plant  simply  appears ;  no  one  knows  the  cause 
of  the  change  in  it.  Such  plants  are  called  sports,  or 
mutants. 

In  other  cases  new  plant  forms  appear  because  pollen 
from  one  kind  of  plant  reaches  the  pistil  and  leads  to 
the  fertilization  of  an  egg  cell  of  a  different  kind ;  then 
when  the  seed  grows,  it  produces  a  plant  that  may  be 
different  from  either  of  its  parents.  Such  plants  are 
called  hybrids.  Gardeners  and  plant  breeders  often 
cross  plants  to  combine  the  good  qualities  of  both  parents 
in  one  plant  and  to  cause  to  appear  new  qualities  that 
neither  parents  have. 

New  varieties  are  developed  from  the  seeds  of  these 
new  kinds  of  plants.  All  the  different  kinds  of  corn  are 
supposed  to  have  come  from  one  ancestor  (which 
may  have  been  a  hybrid).  Possibly  many  of  the 
varieties  were  produced  by  saving  seeds  from  plants 
that  were  different  from  their  parents.  In  the  same 
way  all  the  different  kinds  of  kidney  beans,  musk- 
melons,  and  tomatoes  have  been  developed  by  selecting 
seed  from  plants  that  differed  from  their  sister  plants. 

The  various  members  of  the  cabbage  group  illustrate 
well  how  gardeners  have  developed  from  a  common  stock 


I2O 


Gardening 


- 


FIG.  71.  The  two  kinds  of  flowers  of  a  corn  plant.  At  the  left  is  the  "tassel," 
which  bears  the  staminate  flowers.  At  the  right  is  the  cluster  of  female 
flowers  that  forms  the  immature  ear.  Each  thread  of  this  "silk"  is  a  part 
of  a  pistil,  the  portion  outside  of  the  husk  being  stigma.  The  pollen  tubes 
reach  the  ovules  (which  develop  into  the  kernels)  by  growing  down  through 
the  silk. 

plants  that  differ  markedly  from  one  another.  The  wild 
cabbage,  now  growing  on  the  chalk  cliffs  of  England  and 
elsewhere,  is  believed  to  be  the  ancestor  of  all  the  culti- 
vated members  of  this  group.  It  is  a  rather  scrawny  plant 
with  comparatively  few  leaves,  but  under  cultivation  in 
various  climates  there  have  been  developed  from  it : 

(1)  kohl-rabi  with  its  few  leaves  and  thick,  fleshy 
stem; 

(2)  kale,  with  many  but  separated  leaves ; 

(3)  cabbage,  with  the  great  bud  on  the  top  of  the 
stem  developed  as  a  compact  head  of  leaves ; 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  121 


FIG.  72.  The  two  kinds  of  flowers  borne  on  a  summer  squash  plant;  a,  pis- 
tillate flower,  complete ;  b,  pistillate  flower  with  calyx  and  corolla  removed  to 
show  the  pistil ;  c,  staminate  flower,  complete ;  d,  staminate  flower  with  calyx 
and  corolla  removed  to  show  the  cluster  of  stamens. 

(4)  Brussels  sprouts,  in  which  the  buds  on  the  sides  of 
the  stem  develop  as  small  heads  ;  and 

(5)  cauliflower,  in  which  the  first  flowering  branches 
are  thickened  and  fleshy. 

Selection  of  seed  has  given  us  all  these  different  types 
of  the  cabbage  group,  and  further  selection  has  also 
developed  many  varieties  of  each  of  these  different  types. 
Thus  there  are  now  many  kinds  of  cabbages,  differing 
in  size  and  shape  of  the  head,  in  color,  and  in  the  length 
of  time  required  for  growth. 

Crossing  the  white  scallop  pumpkin  with  the  crook- 
neck  pumpkin  (usually  called  summer  squash)  gives  in 
the  second  generation  many  types  of  fruit,  varying  in 


122  Gardening 


" 


A"eu>  Jersey  Ex  pi.  stn. 

FIG.  73.  Three  new  varieties  oi  squashes  produced  by  crossing  a  white  scallop 
summer  squash  (P,  at  the  left  side  of  picture)  with  a  warty,  yellow-colored  sum- 
mer crookneck  (P,  at  right  side).  The  photograph  shows  three  new  varieties 
that  have  been  produced.  The  upper  row  shows  a  type  of  short-necked  "jug" 
fruit  of  medium  size  with  a  smooth,  cream-colored  surface.  The  middle  row 
shows  a  longer-necked  type  of  "jug"  fruit,  somewhat  like  the  crookneck  in  shape, 
but  green-striped  and  not  warty.  In  the  lower  row  the  fruits  are  very  thin- 
fleshed,  nearly  spherical,  cream-colored,  and  not  warty.  After  the  first  crossing, 
the  plants  were  selected  and  self-bred  for  five  generations,  after  which  some  of 
the  new  kinds  would  breed  true  enough  to  make  new  varieties. 

shape,  size,  color,  and  quality  of  flesh.  Selection  and 
breeding  of  these  hybrids  will  develop  new  varieties 
(Fig.  73). 

New  varieties  are  usually  first  described  in  the  seed 
catalogues  as  "  novelties."  In  the  course  of  time 
novelties  may  become  standard  varieties,  or  they  may  be 
discarded  because  they  prove  unworthy  of  cultivation. 

How  the  plant  breeder  works.  In  cross-breeding 
plants,  the  breeder  needs  to  know  for  a  certainty  what 
the  parents  are.  He,  therefore,  first  selects  the  two 
plants  that  he  wishes  to  cross.  Then  he  applies  the 
pollen  from  one  of  them  to  the  pistil  of  one  or  more 
flowers  on  the  other.  To  prevent  self-pollination  or 
stray  cross-pollination  he  may  remove  the  stamens  from 
the  flower  that  is  to  be  pollinated,  cover  it  with  a  paper 
bag,  or  carry  out  such  other  measures  as*  may  be  neces- 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  123 


New  Jersey  Expt.  Sta. 

FIG.  74.  Result  of  crossing  summer  squashes  with  the  field  pumpkin.  The 
large  cream-colored,  pear-shaped  fruits  in  the  center  of  the  upper  row  and 
the  somewhat  flattened  white  or  yellow-colored  fruits  in  the  bottom  row 
are  offspring  of  a  cross  between  the  white  scallop  and  the  field  pumpkin. 
The  large,  elongated,  warty  fruits  in  the  center  row  were  obtained  from 
among  the  offspring  of  a  warty  "jug"  fruit  (itself  a  hybrid)  crossed  with  the 
field  pumpkin. 

sary.  What  he  does  depends  on  the  kind  of  flowers 
borne  by  the  plants. 

The  plants  that  grow  from  the  seeds  produced  in  this 
way  are  hybrids,  or  cross-breeds.  In  some  cases  (for 
example,  in  peas  and  corn)  the  cross-bred  seeds  them- 
selves may  show  that  they  are  hybrids,  but  for  the  study 
of  characters  like  the  shape  of  leaves  and  the  size  and 
color  of  the  fruit,  the  hybrid  plants  within  the  seeds 
must  be  grown  to  maturity. 

Usually  the  first  generation  of  hybrids  between  two 
stocks  that  are  not  themselves  hybrids  are  all  very  much 
alike.  They  may  resemble  one  parent  in  one  way  and 
the  other  parent  in  another  way.  In  general  appearance 
they  often  seem  to  be  a  blend  of  the  two  parents. 

When  the  plant  breeder  saves  seed  from  some  of  these 
first-generation  hybrid  plants,  and  raises  the  second 
hybrid  generation,  this  generation  of  plants  usually 
shows  wide  variations.  Among  these  the  plant  breeder 


124  Gardening 

looks  for  new  and  valuable 
kinds.  In  some  respects  the 
plants  may  be  like  one  or  the 
other  of  the  original  parents, 
but  there  are  often  forms 

FIG.  75.     Showing  how    a    tomato     ji^    are    Hiffprpnt    in     <;nmp 
flower  is  prepared  for  hand  pollina- 
tion,   a,  the  stage  before  shedding    features  from   either  parent 

of  pollen  when  anthers  are  removed :  ,          1-1  v  i 

b,    flower    with    stamens    removed;  and      Which      When     Selected 

pistil  fully  developed  and  ready  for  may  yie^   new  and  Valuable 
artificial  pollination. 

varieties  that  will  breed  true. 

In  his  work  the  plant  breeder  self-pollinates  the 
flowers,  if  possible,  of  the  individuals  of  the  hybrid  gen- 
erations. But  in  some  plants  the  pollen  will  not  ferti- 
lize the  ovules  on  the  same  plant,  or  the  pollen  and  pistils 
mature  at  different  times,  so  that  cross-pollination  must 
be  practiced.  In  studying  hybrids,  one  can  obtain  a 
clearer  idea  of  their  resemblances  to  the  original  parents 
if  attention  is  given  to  only  one  character  at  a  time. 
The  exact  way  in  which  a  plant  breeder  goes  about  his 
work  can  be  better  understood  from  a  study  of  the 
cross-breeding  of  a  particular  plant,  like  corn  or  the 
tomato. 

Cross-breeding  corn.  Plants  of  two  varieties  of  corn 
may  readily  be  crossed,  provided  they  bloom  at  the  same 
time.  Let  us  suppose  that  rows  of  the  variety  of  white 
corn  known  as  "  S  to  well's  Evergreen  "  are  planted  alter- 
nately with  rows  of  the  black  variety  called  "  Black 
Mexican."  The  tassels  on  the  plants  of  the  Evergreen 
can  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  appear  and  before  they 
shed  any  pollen.  The  wind  will  then  carry  pollen  from 
the  Black  Mexican  to  the  pistils  of  the  Evergreen,  and 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  125 

the  seeds  in  the  ears  of  all  the  Evergreen  corn  will  be 
black.  Or  the  cross  can  be  made  by  removing  the  tassels 
of  the  Black  Mexican  and  allowing  the  pollen  from  the 
Evergreen  to  fall  on  the  pistils  of  the  Mexican. 

Another  way  is  to  do  the  crossing  by  hand.  Stalks 
bearing  two  ears  may  be  selected.  One  ear  is  used  for 
crossing  and  the  other  as  a  "  check  "  to  compare  with  the 
hybrids  produced.  Each  ear  is  properly  "  bagged," 
and  as  the  pistils  and  pollen  mature,  the  bags  are 
removed,  the  pollinations  made,  and  the  bags  replaced. 
The  exact  method  of  doing  all  this  is  best  learned  by 
experiment  (page  143). 

When  the  plants  (first-generation  hybrids)  are  grown 
from  these  seeds,  self-pollinations  of  these  may  be  made. 
Later  generations  may  be  grown  from  both  white  and 
black  kernels  to  determine  which  breed  true.  As  a  rule, 
it  is  necessary  to  cross-pollinate  in  breeding  corn,  because 
the  pollen  produced  by  the  tassel  usually  matures  before 
the  silk  on  the  same  plant  is  ready  to  receive  it.  Self- 
pollination  is  easier  in  the  tomato,  and  in  the  different 
varieties  of  pumpkins,  which  include  the  summer 
squashes. 


FIG.  76.  An  ear  of  a  white  variety  of  sweet  corn  that  grew  near  a  row  of  Black 
Mexican  corn.  Can  you  explain  why  some  of  the  grains  are  white  and  some  are 
black? 


126 


Gardening 


Cross-breeding  toma- 
toes. Any  two  varieties 
of  tomatoes  may  be 
crossed.  If  they  are 
planted  together  in 
spring,  they  are  certain 
to  have  some  flowers 
opening  at  the  same 
time.  For  experimental 
purposes  it  is  well  to 
select  two  varieties  with 
marked  differences,  as, 
for  example,  a  yellow 
pear-shaped  variety  and 
a  red  variety  of  ordinary 
shape. 

As  the  stamens  and 
pistils  are  both  found  in 
the  same  flower,  it  is 

been  bagged  to  protect  them  from  other     nCCCSSary,  if  One  is  to  be 
pollen.  .    .         .     . 

certain  of  the  parentage, 

to  remove  the  stamens  from  the  flowers  that  are  to  be 
pollinated  (see  Fig.  75). 

Cross-breeding  pumpkins.  The  patty  pan,  the  sum- 
mer crookneck,  and  the  pumpkin  may  all  be  crossed, 
yielding  interesting  results  as  to  shape,  color,  and  size 
of  fruits  in  the  second  hybrid  generation.  The  stamens 
and  pistils  are  in  separate  flowers  on  the  same  plant. 
The  pistillate  flowers  may  be  recognized  in  the  bud  by 
the  enlarged  part  (ovary)  which  will  later  become  the 
fruit. 


FIG.  77.     A  cluster  of  tomato  flowers  have 


Seeds  for  the  Garden 


127 


FIG.  78.  Two  squashes  grown  from  the  same 
packet  of  seed  purchased  for  summer  crook- 
neck.  Both  have  the  characteristic  color  of 
the  crookneck,  but  the  one  on  the  left  is  en- 
tirely distinct  from  the  crookneck  in  shape. 
A  variation  such  as  this  may  be  the  result 
of  crossing  or  of  sporting  and  may  give  rise 
to  new  varieties. 


To  prevent  pollina- 
tion by  insects,  the 
pistillate  flowers  are 
bagged  shortly  before 
they  open.  As  the 
stems  of  squash  flowers 
are  tender  and  brittle, 
special  care  must  be 
used  to  prevent  injury 
to  them. 

Keeping  varieties 
true  to  kind.  After 
valuable  kinds  of 
plants  have  been  pro- 
duced, the  seedsman 
still  has  the  problem  of  keeping  them  true  to  type. 
Even  the  best  varieties  of  vegetables  produce  some 
worthless  plants  and  plants  not  like  the  parent 
stock ;  also  many  varieties  of  garden  plants  cross- 
fertilize  easily.  Therefore  the  well-known  and  stand- 
ard varieties  must  be  kept  true  to  kind  in  seed 
breeding  by  preventing  accidental  cross-pollination 
between  varieties  and  by  discarding,  either  as  seed 
or  pollen  parents,  the  plants  that  are  not  true  to  the 
variety. 

The  different  varieties  of  the  same  species  nearly 
always  cross  readily.  If  grown  close  together,  they 
may  bloom  at  the  same  time,  and  insects  or  the  wind  are 
likely  to  bring  about  cross-pollination.  Different  kinds 
of  beets,  of  radishes,  of  corn,  and  of  many  other  plants 
may  be  grown  at  a  distance  from  each  other,  or  the  seed 


128 


Gardening 


FIG.  79.  A  portion  of  the  seed  trial  grounds  of  a  large  seed  company.  Each 
row  is  numbered,  and  a  careful  record  is  kept  of  the  growth  and  yield  of  the 
plants.  Reliable  seed  firms  spend  much  money  in  keeping  up  the  quality  of  the 
seeds  they  sell. 

will  often  be  of  mixed  parentage.  When  this  is  the  case, 
they  may  not  be  true  to  varieties. 

Most  standard  varieties  are  already  highly  bred  and 
are  the  result  of  repeated  selection ;  they  appear  to  have 
reached  their  limits  as  far  as  the  development  of  desirable 
qualities  is  concerned.  Variation  in  such  highly  bred 
varieties  most  often  gives  rise  to  poorer  plants.  The 
seed  breeder  watches  carefully  and  pulls  up  such  poor 
plants  (or  "  rogues/'  as  he  calls  them),  so  that  they 
cannot  become  the  parents  of  his  later  crops. 

Seed  growing  an  important  industry.  The  best 
seedsmen  maintain  extensive  fields  for  growing  seeds  of 
plants  of  standard  varieties.  They  also  have  large 
growing  plots  for  testing  the  seeds  of  other  growers  and 
for  experimenting  in  the  production  of  new  varieties. 
Special  and  often  expensive  apparatus  is  used  for  collect- 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  129 

ing  and  cleaning  seeds.  For  many  varieties  the  best  seed 
is  produced  only  in  certain  localities  where  the  climatic 
conditions  are  especially  favorable.  The  average  gar- 
dener has  neither  the  time,  the  experience,  nor  the  facilities 
for  the  successful  seed  growing  of  most  garden  crops. 
Because  of  these  facts,  he  can  buy  good  seeds  of  most 
crops  cheaper  than  he  can  raise  them. 

Buying  seed.  The  first  rule  in  buying  seeds  is  to 
buy  those  produced  by  a  reliable  firm.  The  best  seed  firms 
take  great  pains  to  prevent  mixing  of  different  varieties 
during  growth  and  seed  production.  They  have  trial 
grounds  for  testing  the  purity  and  the  quality  of  seeds 
before  the  supply  is  sold  in  the  market.  This  makes  sure, 
to  a  high  degree,  that  the  seeds  sold  in  packages  will  be 
true  to  the  name  on  the  package.  The  gardener  can- 
not afford  to  plant  poor  seed,  even  if  it  is  offered  as  a 
gift. 

The  second  rule  in  buying  seeds  is  to  buy  only  named 
varieties.  The  gardener  does  not  grow  simply  sweet  corn. 
He  grows  Golden  Bantam,  Country  Gentleman,  or  some 
other  variety,  and  he  selects  these  for  such  qualities  as 
earliness  or  lateness,  size,  yield,  color,  or  sweetness. 
The  ordinary  seed  catalogue  affords  a  choice  of  several 
varieties  of  most  garden  vegetables.  There  may  be 
listed  as  many  as  10  varieties  of  carrots,  25  of  cabbages, 
30  of  sweet  corn,  35  of  lettuce,  and  45  of  tomatoes. 
The  gardener  must  decide  what  variety  or  varieties  he 
will  grow.  Naturally,  he  hopes  to  select  those  that 
will  give  the  best  results  in  his  garden. 

The  descriptions  in  the  seed  catalogues  give  much 
valuable  information  regarding  the  general  characteristics 


Gardening 


of  the  varieties  listed.  For  example,  the  pole  and  bush 
varieties  of  beans,  the  summer  and  winter  radishes,  and 
the  early  and  late  varieties  of  the  garden  peas  are  prop- 
erly listed  and  briefly  described.  One  soon  learns  from 
the  seed  catalogues  alone,  if  there  is  no  other  source  of 
information,  that  there  are  wide  differences  between  the 
various  sorts  of  the  same  vegetable.  A  study  of  the 
descriptions  in  catalogues  will  help  the  beginner,  before  he 
grows  his  crops,  to  judge  the  merits  of  different  varieties. 


Van  Ernie  Kilpatrick 

FIG.  80.  Seeds  put  up  especially  for  New  York  City  school  children.  The 
Board  of  Education  contracts  with  a  seed  firm  for  sets  of  seeds  suitable  for  plant- 
ing a  small  garden. 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  131 

The  advice  of  experienced  home  gardeners  will  often  be 
of  special  value. 

The  beginner  in  gardening  should  choose  standard 
varieties.  These  will  usually  give  the  most  successful 
crops.  They  are  standard  varieties  because  by  long 
trial  they  have  been  known  to  give  the  best  crops.  If 
the  gardener  fails  in  growing  standard  sorts,  he  may  be 
sure  that  the  fault  lies  in  cultural  conditions,  especially 
if  his  neighbors  succeed  with  the  same  varieties. 

As  the  gardener  gains  in  experience,  others  besides 
the  standard  varieties  may  be  tried  with  results  that  may 
give  pleasure  as  well  as  profit.  Sometimes  new  varieties 
are  found  to  be  far  better  than  the  older  varieties  in 
one  or  more  desirable  qualities. 

Amount  of  seed  needed.  Before  ordering  seeds,  the 
amount  of  each  kind  needed  should  be  rather  carefully 
estimated.  A  single  packet  of  small  seeds,  such  as 
lettuce,  tomato,  radish,  or  cabbage,  is  sufficient  for  a 
small  garden.  It  is  well  to  become  familiar  with  the 
amount  necessary  to  sow  a  given  area.  An  ounce  of 
beet  seed,  for  example,  will  sow  a  row  of  about  25  feet. 
Of  the  larger  seeds,  such  as  bean  and  corn,  a  half  pint 
is  needed  for  a  row  of  50  feet.  With  a  good  plan  of  the 
garden,  one  can  determine  very  accurately  the  quantity 
of  seed  needed.  No  more  than  this  amount  should  be 
ordered. 

Seeds  can  be  bought  cheaper  in  bulk  than  in  small 
packets.  In  a  half  pound  of  corn,  costing  about  25 
cents,  there  are  more  than  three  times  as  many  seeds 
as  there  are  in  a  lo-cent  packet.  Any  group  of  persons 
(a  garden  club,  a  school,  a  class,  a  troop  of  Boy  Scouts) 


132  Gardening 

who  are  engaged  in  gardening  will  find  it  to  their  advan- 
tage to  order  in  bulk  and  then  divide  the  seed  into 
packets  themselves. 

How  to  produce  seeds  in  the  home  garden.  Good 
seed  of  several  of  the  crops  grown  in  the  home  vegetable 
garden  may  be  raised  by  the  gardener  himself.  In  grow- 
ing these  seeds,  he  needs  to  pay  attention  to  the  same 
matters  that  the  commercial  seedsman  does.  He  should 
aim  first  to  select  parents  which  are  true  to  the  variety ; 
next,  to  prevent  cross-pollination  between  varieties ; 
and  finally,  to  collect  and  care  for  the  seed  prop- 
erly. 

The  successful  selection  of  seed  and  the  judgment  of 
parents  is  least  difficult  in  those  plants  whose  fruits  or 
seeds  are  used  as  food.  Melons,  corn,  tomatoes,  and 
beans  are  in  this  class.  These  plants  make  complete, 
or  almost  complete,  development  as  ordinarily  grown 
in  the  garden.  With  a  little  study  the  best  plants  may 
be  selected  for  seed  parents.  The  largest  and  earliest 
fruits  from  best-yielding  plants  may  be  saved  for  their 
seeds.  To  insure  a  good  pollen  parent  for  corn,  it  is  an 
excellent  plan  to  cut  out  those  stalks  that  bear  no  ears, 
and  break  off,  before  the  pollen  is  shed,  the  tassels  of  the 
plants  that  have  small  ears. 

In  selection  for  those  plants  like  the  salad  plants  and 
the  root  crops,  attention  is  given  especially  to  the  edible 
parts  —  leaves,  stems,  or  roots  —  rather  than  to  the 
fruits  or  the  seeds.  The  annuals  of  this  group,  especially 
lettuce  and  radishes,  tend  to  produce  some  poor  plants 
which  "  run  to  seed  "  early.  These  should  be  pulled 
up  before  they  blossom.  If  a  few  of  the  earliest  of  the 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  133 

best  plants  are  left  standing  for  seed,  both  parents  will  be 
good. 

The  biennials  (plants  that  blossom  in  the  second  year 
from  seed  and  then  die)  require  more  attention  than  the 
annuals.  In  the  more  northern  parts  of  the  United 
States,  to  secure  seed  of  the  beet,  carrot,  cabbage,  and 
turnip,  the  roots  must  be  carefully  stored  over  winter 
where  they  will  not  be  frozen,  and  replanted  the  following 
spring.  This  treatment  may  be  difficult  for  the  average 
gardener,  because  he  may  not  have  a  proper  storage 
place.  Plants  of  salsify  and  of  parsnips,  however,  can 
be  left  in  the  ground  over  winter,  and  in  the  spring  some 
of  the  plants  with  the  best  roots  may  be  transplanted 
to  a  convenient  place  and  left  to  mature  their  seeds. 

Seed  of  crosses  do  not  breed  true,  and  if  varieties  of 
the  same  plant  grow  near  each  other  and  bloom  at 
the  same  time,  they  usually  cross.  This  is  especially 
true  of  corn,  beets,  various  members  of  the  cab- 
bage tribe,  cucumbers,  melons,  tomatoes,  and  lettuce. 
Thus,  cabbage  will  cross  with  kohl-rabi ;  any  two  sorts 
of  cucumbers  may  cross ;  and  all  sorts  of  muskmelons 
can  hybridize.  But  cucumbers  will  not  cross  with 
muskmelons,  as  is  commonly  believed.  If  only  one 
variety  of  a  given  vegetable  sort  is  grown  in  a  garden, 
there  is,  of  course,  no  chance  for  crossing  with  other 
varieties  unless  another  garden  is  near  by. 

Early  and  late  varieties  that  bloom  at  different  times 
have  no  opportunity  to  cross.  The  first  ears  of  an  early 
corn,  like  Golden  Bantam  or  Malcolm,  are  not  usually 
crossed  with  late  varieties  growing  in  the  same  gar- 
den. In  a  few  of  the  garden  crops,  peas  and  beans 


134 


Gardening 


for  example,  the  flowers 
are  so  constructed  that 
self-pollination  is  very 
general ;  so  there  is  lit- 
tle chance  for  crossing, 
and  any  seed  collected 
is  likely  to  be  of  single 
parentage. 

Collection  of  seed. 
The  best  methods  of 
collecting  seeds  depend 
chiefly  on  the  nature  of 
the  fruit  and  how  the 
seeds  are  shed  from  it. 
In  all  cases  the  aim  is 
to  secure  fully  ripened 
seeds  and  to  collect  them 
before  they  are  shed 
broadcast. 

The  fleshy  fruits  of 
the  pumpkin,  squash, 
cucumber,  and  tomato,  selected  from  plants  of  good 
quality,  should  be  allowed  to  ripen  fully.  They  may 
then  be  cut  open  and  the  seed  removed,  washed,  and 
spread  out  on  paper  or  cloth  to  dry. 

The  best  radish  plants  should  be  pulled  when  the 
majority  of  the  pods  are  fully  ripe.  The  best  bean 
plants  should  be  pulled  when  the  pods  are  about  to  shed 
their  seeds.  In  both  cases,  the  whole  plant  should 
then  be  laid  in  a  dry  place  for  a  while  before  the 
seeds  are  removed. 


States  Relations  Service 
FIG.  81.    A  tomato  plant  marked  for  seed. 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  135 

Seeds  of  lettuce  are  small  and  shell  quickly.  The 
easiest  way  to  collect  these  seeds  is  to  wait  until  a 
large  number  of  the  heads  are  ready  to  shed  their  seeds, 
then  pull  the  plants  and  insert  the  top  portion  in  paper 
bags.  Hang  them,  with  the  heads  down,  in  a  dry  place 
until  the  seeds  have  dropped  into  the  bag. 

The  heads  on  a  plant  of  salsify  ripen  and  shed  seeds  at 
different  times,  and  so  the  seeds  must  be  collected  by 
hand  from  each  as  they  ripen.  In  some  localities  seeds 
of  the  New  Zealand  spinach  ripen  and  fall  to  the  ground, 
where  they  may  be  very  easily  collected.  Ears  of  corn 
selected  for  seed  should  be  allowed  to  ripen  fully  on  the 
plant;  then  after  they  are  pulled  the  husks  should  be 
stripped  back  and  the  ears  hung  up  in  a  dry  place. 

The  ten  plants  listed  above  are  those  from  which  seed 
can  most  readily  be  obtained  in  the  ordinary  home 
garden. 

Storage  of  seeds.  To  keep  seeds  properly  from  year 
to  year,  or  until  the  next  planting  time,  they  must  be 
kept  dry  and  protected  from  mice  and  insects.  The 
larger  seeds  may  be  kept  in  cloth  or  paper  bags,  but  the 
smaller  seeds  should  be  placed  in  envelopes  and  each 
envelope  plainly  labeled  with  the  name  of  the  variety  and 
the  date  of  collection  or  purchase.  A  tin  bread  box  is 
excellent  for  the  storage  of  seed ;  mice  cannot  get  into  it, 
and  the  ventilator  holes  allow  the  air  to  circulate  and 
keep  the  seeds  dry.  Tin  cans  with  close-fitting  covers  are 
just  as  good,  but  two  or  three  small  holes  should  be 
made  in  the  cover  to  give  ventilation.  Do  not  store 
the  seed  box  in  the  cellar.  A  dry  garret  is  a  better 
place. 


136  Gardening 

Fumigation  for  insects.  Seeds  of  corn,  peas,  and  beans 
are  especially  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  insects  (larvae  of 
moths  and  weevils),  and  sometimes  the  eggs  of  these  are 
laid  on  or  even  in  seeds  about  the  time  they  are  har- 
vested. It  is  well,  therefore,  to  gather  these  seeds  as 
soon  as  mature  and  fumigate  immediately  upon  storing 
them.  Also  examine  the  contents  of  seed  boxes  occa- 
sionally and,  if  insects  are  present,  fumigate  again  with 
carbon  bisulnd. 

To  fumigate,  paste  paper  over  the  perforated  areas  of 
the  box  and  place  an  open  dish  containing  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  liquid  carbon  bisulnd  within  the  box  and 
on  top  of  the  seed ;  then  immediately  fasten  the  cover 
on  tightly. 

Caution!  Carbon  bisulnd  is  highly  inflammable.  Its 
gas  readily  catches  fire  if  flame  of  any  kind  is  near.  It 
also  affects  human  beings  quite  like  chloroform.  Do 
not  breathe  in  the  fumes ;  do  not  take  light  or  flame  into 
the  room  when  fumigation  is  in  progress.  It  is  best  to 
place  the  box  in  the  open,  but  the  gas  forms  poorly  if  the 
temperature  is  below  50°  F.  All  fumigation  should  be 
done  by  mature  persons  who  understand  fully  what  care 
must  be  taken. 

Seed  treatment  before  planting.  In  a  later  chapter 
we  shall  learn  of  certain  plant  diseases  that  are  caused 
by  bacteria  or  by  fungi.  These  bacteria  and  the  spores 
of  the  fungi,  in  some  cases  even  the  strands  of  fungi, 
may  be  present  on  or  in  seeds,  ready  to  grow  and  feed 
upon  the  young  plants  when  they  germinate.  This 
condition  may  be  indicated,  especially  in  large  seeds  like 
those  of  the  bean,  by  the  presence  of  blotches  or  dark- 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  137 

colored  sunken  or  shriveled  areas.  Seeds  showing  such 
infection  should  never  be  planted. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  proper  use  of  hot  water, 
formaldehyde,  and  the  deadly  poison,  corrosive  sub- 
limate, will  often  destroy  the  organisms  that  are  present 
on  or  in  the  seeds.  Thus  the  farmer  has  learned  how  to 
treat  the  seeds  of  oats  for  the  smut  disease.  In  much  the 
same  way  seeds  of  beans,  corn,  onions,  cucumbers,  and 
beets  can  be  treated  for  various  diseases. 

Seed  treatment  must  be  done  carefully.  In  the  first 
place  there  is  danger  of  injuring  the  seeds ;  then  different 
kinds  of  diseases  require  different  kinds  of  treatment; 
also,  we  must  remember  that  some  of  the  chemicals 
used  for  this  work  are  deadly  poisonous  to  man.  Seed 
treatment  is  not  to  be  attempted  by  children  unless 
under  the  constant  supervision  of  a  fully  competent 
person. 

Viability  of  seeds.  When  the  tiny  plant  or  embryo  in 
the  seed  begins  to  grow,  we  say  it  "  germinates."  A 
seed  in  which  the  embryo  is  alive,  so  that  the  seed  will 
germinate,  is  called  "  viable."  Whether  a  seed  will 
germinate  depends  upon  (i)  the  maturity  of  the  seed 
when  collected,  (2)  the  conditions  of  storage,  (3)  the  age 
of  the  seed,  and  (4)  the  kind  of  seed. 

If  seeds  are  ripe  when  collected  and  if  they  are  properly 
cared  for,  the  length  of  time  that  those  of  the  principal 
garden  crops  will  remain  viable  is  as  follows : 

2  years  —  sweet  corn,  onion,  parsnip,  and  salsify. 

3  years  —  bean,  parsley,  and  pea. 

4  years  —  carrot,  mustard,  pepper,  and  tomato. 

5  years  —  cabbage,  cauliflower,  kale,  kohl-rabi,  lettuce, 


138  Gardening 


FIG.  82.     A  germination  test  of  corn  and  beans.     The  seed  planted  in  the  left 
half  of  the  box  is  good ;  that  planted  in  the  right  half  is  poor. 

muskmelon,  watermelon,  okra,  radish,  pumpkin,  squash, 
spinach,  and  turnip. 

Up  to  10  years  —  cucumber  and  endive. 

Seeds  of  parsnip,  parsley,  and  celery  are  always  rather 
poor  in  viability,  and  only  60  to  75  per  cent  of  the  seed 
will  germinate. 

As  a  rule  not  every  seed  in  a  given  lot  will  germinate, 
but  at  least  70  per  cent  should  do  so  if  the  seed  is  in  good 
condition.  Beans,  peas,  corn,  radishes,  and  tomatoes 
often  germinate  95  per  cent  or  more.  If  less  than  70 
per  cent  germinates,  some  of  the  plants  that  do  appear 
are  likely  to  be  weak. 

Test  for  germination.  One  cannot  tell  for  certain 
from  the  appearance  of  seeds  whether  they  will  germinate 
or  not.  It  is  therefore  a  good  plan  to  test  the  viability  of 
seeds,  especially  if  they  are  known  to  be  more  than  one 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  139 

year  old.  Do  this  several  weeks  in  advance  of  the 
planting  dates,  so  that  there  will  be  time  to  secure  a 
new  supply  if  necessary. 

There  are  several  simple  methods  of  testing  for  ger- 
mination. One  plan  is  to  count  out  a  number  of  seeds 
and  plant  them  in  garden  soil  in  a  seed  box,  a  flat,  or  a 
pan.  Place  this  seed  pan  in  a  warm  room,  in  a  green- 
house, or  in  a  hotbed.  Keep  the  soil  properly  moist. 
The  number  of  seeds  that  germinate  will  indicate  how 
viable  the  seeds  are. 

Another  simple  method  is  the  blotter  test.  A  blotter 
is  laid  on  an  ordinary  plate,  seeds  are  placed  on  the 
blotter,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  an  inverted  plate 
and  kept  in  a  warm  room.  If  the  blotter  is  saturated 
with  water  daily,  the  seeds  will  receive  sufficient  moisture 
for  germination.  The  proportion  of  embryos  that  start 
to  grow  may  readily  be  observed. 


Thus  we  learn  that  when  we  plant  seeds  we  are  placing 
in  the  earth  little  plants  which  we  hope  to  grow  to  maturity 
for  the  food  they  afford.  The  care  which  is  given  in  prepar- 
ing the  soil,  planting  the  seed,  and  rearing  the  plants  deter- 
mines to  a  large  extent  what  the  quantity  and  special 
quality  of  the  food  will  be.  But  the  kind  of  plant  and 
the  kind  of  food  it  will  produce  is  already  determined 
through  its  parentage  and  ancestry. 

We  cannot  afford  to  plant  poor  seed.  We  can  avoid 
many  of  the  risks  regarding  quality  of  seed.  We  can 
buy  seed  of  pure  varieties  or  strains  from  reliable  firms, 
or  we  can  control  and  select  the  parentage  when  pro- 


140  Gardening 

ducing  seed  in  our  own  gardens.  We  can  properly  store 
and  care  for  seeds  to  maintain  their  natural  viability, 
and  we  can  test  samples  of  seeds  to  determine  if  the 
little  plants  in  them  are  alive. 

Questions 

Why  is  it  important  for  a  gardener  to  plant  good  seed  ?  What 
advance  has  recently  been  made  in  selecting  seed  parents  ?  De- 
scribe the  structure  of  a  seed.  Name  the  four  different  parts 
that  you  have  found  in  the  flower  of  the  bean.  What  do  the 
anthers  contain?  Where  are  the  ovules  found?  What  do  they 
become  when  they  mature?  What  is  pollination?  Why  is  it 
necessary?  How  is  it  accomplished?  What  is  self-pollination? 
cross-pollination?  Describe  what  happens  in  fertilization.  From 
what  does  the  embryo  grow  ?  Why  is  it  important  for  a  seed  to 
have  a  good  pollen  parent? 

What  is  a  hybrid  ?  How  are  new  varieties  of  plants  obtained  ? 
Name  a  group  of  vegetables  that  illustrates  the  development  of  a 
number  of  varieties  from  one  ancestor.  Name  the  members  of 
this  group.  What  is  meant  by  keeping  varieties  true  to  kind? 
How  is  this  done  in  seed  breeding?  Describe  briefly  the  general 
methods  used  by  the  plant  breeder  in  cross-breeding.  What  can 
you  say  of  the  characteristics  of  the  first  generation  of  hybrids? 
of  the  second  generation  of  hybrids?  State  briefly  how  corn  is 
cross-bred;  tomatoes;  pumpkins. 

Why  should  seed  be  bought  of  a  reliable  firm?  Why  should 
only  named  varieties  be  bought?  How  may  the  gardener  deter- 
mine how  much  seed  to  order? 

From  what  garden  vegetables  is  seed  for  planting  most  easily 
obtained?  Explain  some  of  the  things  that  must  be  done  to 
insure  good  seed  from  corn  or  from  annuals  like  radish  or  lettuce. 
How  may  seed  be  obtained  from  biennial  crops,  like  parsnip  and 
salsify  ?  Under  what  conditions  are  different  varieties  of  the  same 
vegetable  apt  to  cross  ?  What  garden  crops  readily  cross  ?  Would 
the  pollen  of  corn  lead  to  fertilization  if  placed  on  the  pistil  of  a 
pumpkin  or  tomato  ? 

How  should  seeds  be  stored  in  the  home?     How  can  insects 


Seeds  for  the  Garden        141 

in  seeds  be  killed?  Why  are  seeds  sometimes  treated  with  hot 
water  or  formaldehyde  before  planting  ?  When  is  a  seed  "viable  "  ? 
Name  two  methods  of  testing  the  viability  of  seeds. 


Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1 .  To  study  the  parts  of  flowers.    Examine  flowers  of  the  different 
garden  plants.    Learn  to  recognize  the  parts.     Which  have  sta- 
mens and  pistils  present  in  the  same  flower  ?    Which  have  them 
in  different  flowers?     Do  flowers  having  only  stamens  produce 
fruit  ? 

2.  To  study  pollination.    Watch  the  insect  visitors  to  flowers. 
What  are  they  seeking?    How  do  they  cause  pollination?     Ob- 
serve how  the  pollen  of  corn  is  distributed. 

3.  To  observe  the  germination  of  pollen.    The  pollen  of  some 
plants  will  germinate  on  a  drop  of  sugar  solution.    Add  i  heaping 
teaspoonful  of  cane  sugar  to  10  teaspoonfuls  of  water.    When 
the  sugar  is  all  dissolved,  place  a  drop  of  the  solution  on  a  clean 
glass   slide.     Scatter  pollen  from   a  freshly  opened   anther  on 
the    drop.    To    prevent    drop    from    drying,    lay    slide    across 
top  of  a  small  dish  containing  water  and  then  invert  and  place  a 
larger  dish  so  that  it  incloses  both  slide  and  small  dish. 

Pollen  of  the  paper  white  narcissus,  which  may  be  grown  during 
winter,  and  of  the  sweet  pea  or  Easter  lily,  which  may  be  had 
at  florists',  germinate  well  in  this  solution.  Pollen  of  the  apple 
may  be  used  in  spring,  and  that  of  the  tomato  and  beans  during 
summer. 

The  pollen  of  many  plants  germinates  poorly  if  at  all  on  sugar 
solutions  unless  agar  is  added  to  make  a  jelly. l  Place  \  teaspoon- 
ful of  powdered  agar  (weighing  about  i  gram)  and  2\  teaspoonfuls 
of  table  sugar  (weighing  about  10  grams)  in  20  teaspoonfuls  of 
water  (weighing  about  100  grams).  Heat  to  gentle  boiling  until 
agar  and  sugar  are  dissolved.  When  cool,  the  mixture  is  like 
jelly.  To  use,  gently  heat  until  mixture  becomes  liquid  and  then 
place  a  drop  on  a  glass  slide.  The  drop  soon  cools  and  becomes 

1  Agar-agar  may  be  obtained  from  any  of  the  many  houses  which 
deal  in  scientific  apparatus  and  supplies;  of  these  Eimer  and  Amend 
of  New  York  City  may  be  mentioned. 


142  Gardening 

solid;  then  the  pollen  may  be  scattered  over  it.  Keep  in  moist 
air  as  directed  above.  The  pollen  of  corn,  which  does  not  ger- 
minate on  sugar  and  water,  germinates  readily  on  the  agar-sugar- 
water  mixture. 

If  the  pollen  is  in  good  condition,  it  often  germinates  in  an 
hour;  and  the  tubes  may  grow  until  they  are  ten  times  as  long 
as  the  pollen  grains  are  wide.  Examine  the  germinating  pollen 
under  a  compound  microscope  and  note  the  delicate,  slender, 
tube-like  plant  with  its  almost  colorless  granular  living  material 
that  grows  from  the  pollen  grain. 

4.  To  observe  the  location  of  the  ovules.     Split  a  few  pistils  of  peas, 
beans,  squashes,  or  cucumbers  after  the  corolla  has  withered  and 
fallen  and  the  fruits  have  begun  to  develop.     Find  the  ovules, 
that  are  developing  into  seeds. 

5.  To  learn  varieties  of  garden  vegetables.    Observe  closely  the 
individual  plants  of  the  various  garden  crops  and  learn  to  judge 
those  that  are  best  and  truest  to  type.     In  this  way  learn  to 
distinguish  the  varieties  of  each  crop. 

6.  To  learn  to  recognize  the  seeds  of  garden  vegetables.     Make  a 
collection  of  the  seeds  of  garden  vegetables,  keeping  each  kind 
separate  in  wide-mouth  bottles  of  suitable  sizes.     Square,  screw- 
top  glass  jars  of  one-half-ounce  and  one-ounce  sizes  (to  be  obtained 
at  most  drug  stores)  are  excellent  for  such  a  collection.     Note  the 
characteristics  of  each  kind  and  how  it  differs  from  the  others. 

Also  collect,  study,  and  learn  to  recognize  the  seeds  of  common 
weeds. 

7.  To  test  the  viability  of  seeds.     Make  the  two  tests  for  viabil- 
ity mentioned  in  this  chapter,  using  as  many  different  kinds  of 
seeds  as  possible.     Record  the  results  in  your  garden  notebook. 

8.  To  demonstrate  that  pollination  is  necessary  for  fruit  and  seed 
production.     Select  at  least  four  corn  plants   having   ears   from 
which  the  pistils  ("silks ")  are  not  quite  ready  to  protrude.     Invert 
over  each  ear  a  paper  bag  (two-pound  size),  and  fit  the  open  end 
around  the  ear  at  a  point  slightly  above  the  middle ;  then  tie  the 
bag  in  place  with  ordinary  twine.     The  end  of  the  ear  is  thus 
completely  inclosed  within  the  bag,  and  no  pollen  can  reach  the 
pistils. 

Leave  the  bags  undisturbed  on  half  the  number  of  ears  until 
there  is  no  chance  that  pollination  can  occur  (this  will  be  about 
10  days  from  the  date  of  bagging).  Examine  the  other  ears  from 


Seeds  for  the  Garden        143 

day  to  day,  carefully  replacing  bags.  When  the  pistils  are  pro- 
truding in  abundance,  sprinkle  pollen  over  their  ends  by  shaking 
it  from  a  cluster  of  staminate  flowers  (tassels).  This  operation 
should  be  repeated  each  day  for  several  days,  as  the  pistils  do 
not  all  mature  at  the  same  time.  After  about  10  days  examine 
again,  and  if  the  ends  of  the  pistils  are  dry  and  shriveled,  the 
bags  may  be  removed  and  each  ear  tagged  or  otherwise  marked 
for  future  identification. 

Allow  all  plants  to  mature  fully.  Which  ears  bear  seeds? 
Which  do  not? 

9.  To  learn  how  to  cross-breed  corn.     Select  a  stalk  of    a  white 
or  yellow  sweet  corn  (StowelPs  Evergreen  will  do)  bearing  two 
ears,  and  another  of  Black  Mexican  also  having  two  ears.     (If 
stalks  bearing  two  ears  are  not  found,  select  two  stalks  of  each 
variety.)     "Bag"  each  ear  at  the  proper  time  as  directed  above 
in  8.     Pollinate  one  ear  on  each  stalk  with  pollen  of  the  other 
variety,  and  the  other  ear  with  pollen  of  the  plant  itself  or  from 
another  plant  of  the  same  variety.    Tag  the  ears. 

Which  parent  do  the  hybrid  seeds  resemble  in  color  ?  Can  you 
identify  hybrid  kernels  of  this  cross  when  borne  by  the  white 
seed  parent?  by  the  black  seed  parent?  Is  black  or  white  a 
dominating  character  in  this  cross? 

Plant  some  of  these  cross-bred  seeds  from  both  parents.  When 
the  plants  flower,  bag  some  of  the  ears  and  make  self-pollinations 
as  directed  in  8.  Count  the  black  seeds  and  the  white  seeds  on 
each  ear.  Which  are  more  numerous?  What  is  the  ratio? 
Do  all  ears  give  the  same  ratio  ?  Are  there  any  kernels  intermediate 
in  color  between  black  or  white,  or  are  there  other  colors? 

10.  To  learn  how  to  cross-breed  tomatoes.     Select  a  cluster  of 
tomato  flowers  in  which  two  or  three  of  the  blossoms  are  freshly 
opened ;  that  is,  when  the  flowers  are  open  but  the  yellow  petals 
are  not  expanded  or  the  stamens  cracked  open  (a  of  Figure  75). 
First,  remove  all  the  stamens  with  a  pair  of  slender-pointed, 
curved  forceps;    to  do  this,  take  hold  of  each  stamen  near  its 
apex,  pull  outward  with  a  gentle  twist  and  break  the  anther  from 
its  stem.     As  the  pistils  are  not  yet  ready  for  pollination,  they 
must  be  left  for  a  while ;  during  this  time  they  should  be  guarded 
from  stray  pollination. 

After  removing  all  the  stamens  of  the  several  flowers,  inclose  the 
entire  flowering  branch  in  a  paper  bag  of  about  two-pound  size. 


144  Gardening 

Wrap  a  small  handful  of  cotton  about  the  stem  where  the  mouth 
of  the  bag  is  to  be  tied,  and  then  tie  the  bag  to  the  stem  (Fig.  77). 

In  about  2  days  the  flowers  thus  prepared  may  be  pollinated. 
From  the  plant  that  has  been  selected  for  the  pollen  parent  remove 
a  flower  having  fully  expanded  petals  and  anthers  that  are  shedding 
pollen.  Hold  this  flower  by  its  stem  and  shake  pollen  directly 
from  the  stamens  on  to  the  ends  of  the  pistils  to  be  pollinated. 
Tag  each  flower  cluster,  rebag,  and  leave  for  about  5  days,  or 
until  it  is  certain  that  fertilization  has  been  accomplished.  Then 
remove  the  bags,  allow  the  fruits  to  become  fully  ripe,  and  collect 
the  seeds. 

Note  whether  the  fruits  that  come  from  the  cross-pollinated 
flowers  on  the  original  parents  are  like  the  other  fruits  on  the 
plant  in  color,  size,  and  shape.  If,  for  example,  pollen  of  a  yellow- 
fruited  parent  is  used  on  pistils  of  a  red-fruited  parent,  are  the 
fruits  red  or  yellow?  How  does  this  compare  with  crosses  of 
black  corn  on  white  ? 

Grow  first-generation  hybrid  plants  from  these  seeds  and  self- 
pollinate  some  of  these  for  seed  for  a  second  hybrid  generation. 
Are  the  fruits  of  the  first  hybrid  generation  alike  as  to  shape, 
color,  and  size  ?  Which  parent  do  they  resemble  ? 

Grow  a  number  of  the  second-generation  hybrid  plants.  Are  the 
fruits  of  the  various  plants  similar  or  very  different  in  color,  size, 
and  shape?  How  many  are  like  the  immediate  parent  (first 
hybrid  generation)?  Do  any  resemble  the  grandparents?  Are 
any  of  the  fruits  new  in  respect  to  color?  to  size?  to  shape? 
Do  any  characters  of  the  original  parents  disappear  in  the  first- 
generation  hybrids  and  reappear  in  certain  of  the  second-genera- 
tion hybrids  ?  Do  the  plants  differ  from  each  other  in  respect  to 
such  characters  as  size,  vigor  of  growth,  shape  and  color  of 
leaves,  amount  of  fruit  produced,  and  earliness  of  ripening  fruit  ? 

ii.  To  learn  how  to  cross-breed  pumpkins.  Select  a  pistillate 
flower  that  is  nearly  ready  to  open.  Place  a  stick  firmly  in  the 
soil  in  an  upright  position  beside  this  flower.  Invert  a  bag  over 
the  flower  and  tie  it  about  the  stem  of  the  flower,  protecting  the 
flower  and  stem  with  a  small  handful  of  cotton  at  the  place  where 
the  tie  is  made.  Tie  the  bag  to  the  stick  also  so  that  its  weight 
will  be  supported.  Another  way  to  keep  insects  from  entering 
the  flower  is  to  tie  the  ends  of  the  flower  with  soft  twine  or  strong 
yarn.  This  prevents  the  flower  from  opening.  As  bees  are  likely 


Seeds  for  the  Garden  145 

to  carry  pollen  from  one  male  flower  to  another,  it  is  advisable 
also  to  bag  or  tie  unopened  male  flowers  from  which  the  pollen  is 
to  be  used  later  in  crossing. 

In  from  24  to  48  hours,  depending  on  development,  the  stam- 
inate  flowers  whose  anthers  are  open  and  shedding  pollen  may  be 
picked.  Remove  the  bags  from  the  pistillate  flowers  to  be  crossed, 
and  dust  the  expanded  stigmas  with  some  of  this  pollen.  Then 
rebag  and  leave  for  a  period  of  4  or  5  days.  Tag  or  otherwise 
mark  the  cross-pollinated  flowers  and  allow  the  fruits  to  mature. 

Grow  the  first  and  second  hybrid  generations,  and  study  the 
fruits  which  are  produced. 


CHAPTER  ELEVEN 

THE  TIME  FOR  PLANTING 

Planting  time !  Time  to  get  a  spade  and  tear  up  the  turf 
somewhere :  to  clear  a  space  and  stir  the  soil  and  set  in 
it  the  roots  of  some  lusty  plant-foundlings,  in  hopes  of 
seeing  what  they  will  do  when  summer  comes. 

JAMES  G.  NEEDHAM 

RADISHES  are  planted  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked 
in  spring.  Lima  beans  are  not  put  into  the  ground  until 
at  least  a  month  later.  The  seeds  of  these  crops  are 
planted  directly  in  the  garden,  but  cabbages  and  toma- 
toes are  grown  from  plants  started  indoors  or  under  glass 
and  later  transplanted  to  the  open  ground. 

These  different  practices  are  followed  because  through 
long  experience  gardeners  have  learned  that  plants  differ 
in  their  temperature  needs  and  in  their  growing  periods. 
Some  kinds  of  seeds,  germinate  in  cool  soil.  Others  rot 
unless  the  soil  is  warm.  Some  plants  grow  best  in  cool 
weather.  Some  thrive  only  when  the  heat  of  summer 
comes.  Some  crops  grow  quickly.  Others  develop 
slowly,  and  it  is  necessary  to  start  the  seedlings  early 
to  permit  them  to  mature  before  the  heat  of  summer  or 
the  frosts  of  autumn  check  their  growth. 

The  right  time  for  planting  a  garden  crop  depends, 
therefore,  not  only  on  the  climate  and  weather  of  the 
locality,  but  also  on  the  heat  and  light  needs  of  the  crop 
and  the  length  of  its  growing  period.  It  is  well  for  the 
gardener  first  to  understand  the  temperature  require- 
ments of  the  various  garden  crops,  and  how  long  it  takes 
each  one  to  mature.  Then  he  can  with  profit  study  the 
climate  of  his  region.  In  this  way  he  can  find  out  much 
that  will  prove  of  value  in  determining  the  right  plant- 

146 


The  Time  for  Planting 


147 


Purdue  Agric.  Expt.  Sta. 

FIG.  83.  A  group  of  home-made  plant  forcers.  One  is  placed  over  each  plant 
or  hill  of  plants.  It  has  a  frame  of  wood  and  a  glass  top.  Each  plant  forcer  is 
thus  a  miniature  greenhouse  or  cold  frame  that  can  be  removed  as  soon  as  warm 
weather  arrives.  In  the  illustration  the  forcers  are  being  used  on  rhubarb. 

ing  dates  for  the  vegetables  he  wishes  to  grow  in  his 
own  garden. 


TEMPERATURE    REQUIREMENTS    AND    GROWING   PERIODS 
OF   DIFFERENT    GARDEN    CROPS 

Garden  crops  may  be  divided  into  cool-season  and 
warm-season  crops.  The  seeds  of  cool-season  crops  ger- 
minate in  the  cool  soil  of  early  spring,  and  their  seedlings 
are  not  much — if  at  all — injured  by  moderate  frosts. 
The  growing  plants  of  this  class  thrive  during  cool 
weather,  and  most  of  them  mature  during  the  cool 
weather  of  either  spring  or  fall.  In  the  more  south- 
ern states  many  of  these  crops  are  "  fall  and  winter  " 
crops,  growing  and  maturing  from  September  to 
May. 


148  Gardening 

On  the  other  hand,  the  seeds  of  many  warm-season 
crops  rot  in  cool  soil ;  the  seedlings  are  injured  by  cool 
weather  and  are  usually  killed  by  frost.  The  plants 
grow  very  slowly,  except  in  hot  weather,  and  they  are 
killed  by  the  first  autumn  frosts.  The  more  quickly 
maturing  of  these  crops  are  grown  from  seed  planted  in 
the  garden ;  but  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States 
the  season  is  too  short  to  allow  those  with  a  long  growing 
period  to  be  raised  entirely  outdoors.  The  seedlings 
of  such  crops  are,  therefore,  started  indoors  or  under 
glass,  and  when  the  soil  and  air  became  warm,  the  plants 
are  transferred  to  the  open  ground.  In  the  more  south- 
ern states  the  warm-season  crops  yield  harvests  from 
May  to  October. 

Quick-growing  cool-season  crops.  Leaf  lettuce,  spring 
radishes,  spinach,  turnips,  and  peas  are  short-period  cool- 
season  crops.  The  seeds  are  planted  in  the  garden  as 
soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked  in  the  spring,  and  the  crops 
mature  before  hot  weather  arrives.  Onions  from  sets  also 
are  grown  in  this  way.  As  the  seedlings  endure  frost, 
first  plantings  of  these  crops  can  be  made  from  ten  days  to 
two  weeks  before  the  latest  killing  frost  of  the  locality. 

Crops  of  these  vegetables  may  be  grown  in  the  autumn 
also,  by  planting  them  late  in  summer.  The  varieties 
that  are  best  for  autumn  are  often  different  from  those 
that  are  best  for  spring  planting.  During  late  summer 
the  conditions  are  rather  unfavorable  to  the  seedlings, 
and  properly  starting  the  autumn  crops  requires  more 
skill  than  does  the  spring  planting.  Success  with  such 
crops  depends  in  large  measure  on  careful  nurture  of  the 
young  seedlings. 


The  Time  for  Planting  149 

Forced  cool-season  crops.  Many  varieties  of  head 
lettuce,  pe-tsai,  and  spring  varieties  of  cabbage, 
kohl-rabi,  cauliflower,  and  celery  mature  properly  only 
in  cool  weather.  But  they  require  so  long  a  period  for 
growth  that  if  seed  is  sown  in  the  open  garden,  hot 
weather  arrives  before  the  crop  is  grown.  The  gardener 
meets  this  condition  by  starting  seedlings  indoors  or  in 
cold  frames  or  hotbeds  so  that  he  may  have  sturdy  seed- 
lings 5  or  6  weeks  old  ready  for  transplanting  into  the 
garden  about  the  date  of  the  latest  frosts,  or  if  especially 
"  hardened,"  even  before  that  time. 

All  these  crops  will  thrive  in  localities  where  the 
summers  are  cool,  and  in  such  places  crops  can  often 
be  grown  during  summer.  Local  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate  may  also  favor  cool-season  crops.  A  clay  soil 
is  often  a  "  cool  soil."  A  soil  poorly  drained  in  spring 
may  be  cool  and  well  supplied  with  water  in  summer. 
A  northern  slope  sometimes  gives  a  good  location  for  cool- 
season  crops. 

The  late  crops  of  these  vegetables  are  usually  grown 
from  varieties  especially  suited  to  autumn  conditions. 
But  these  usually  require  a  longer  period  of  cool  weather 
than  is  available  in  autumn,  at  least  in  the  northern 
states,  where  killing  frosts  may  occur  early  in  September. 

In  the  North  the  autumn  crops  of  these  vegetables  are 
most  successfully  grown  as  follows : 

The  seed  is  sown  in  outdoor  seed  beds  or  in  cold  frames 
in  mid  spring,  after  the  cold  frames  have  been  emptied  of 
the  plants  grown  for  early  plantings.  Here  they  can  be 
well  supplied  with  water  and  given  the  partial  shade 
that  is  necessary.  The  plants  are  then  transplanted  to 


North  Dakota  Agrlc.  Expt.  Sta. 

FIG.  84.  Cabbage  seedlings,  photographed  just  after  a  spring  snowstorm. 
The  cabbage  is  typical  of  a  group  of  hardy  plants  that  may  be  forced  indoors 
and  transplanted  to  the  garden  early  in  the  season.  In  the  South  these  hardy 
plants  grow  outdoors  all  winter. 

the  garden  in  time  for  them  to  become  established  before 
the  hot  weather  of  summer  arrives.  The  plants  grow 
slowly  during  the  summer,  but  make  rapid  growth  when 
the  cool  weather  of  early  autumn  approaches.  Celery 
and  cabbage  will  stand  considerable  hot  weather  if 
abundantly  supplied  with  water. 

In  the  more  southern  of  the  planting  zones  and  in  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  Pacific  coast  region,  the  mild 
winter  weather  makes  it  possible  to  grow  cool-season 
vegetables  as  fall  and  winter  crops. 

The  principal  vegetables  that  can  be  thus  grown  are : 
cabbages,  cauliflowers,  lettuce,  onions,  garlic,  leeks,  peas, 
radishes,  turnips,  rutabagas,  mustard,  spinach,  beets,  and 
carrots.  The  perennial  onions  and  asparagus  are  of 
course  grown  over  winter  here  quite  as  in  the  colder  zones. 


The  Time  for  Planting  151 

South  of  a  line  drawn  through  northern  Alabama,  and 
turning  farther  north  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  freezing 
temperatures  occur  only  during  December  and  January. 
In  this  region  such  vegetables  as  turnips,  rutabagas, 
and  cabbages  mature  in  autumn  from  seed  sown  in 
August  and  September.  Seed  of  hardy  plants  like 
radishes  and  smooth  peas  is  sown  in  the  open  in  Decem- 
ber, the  seed  lying  dormant  in  the  ground,  or  the  seedlings 
growing  slowly  during  the  period  when  frosts  occur 
and  then  developing  rapidly  in  early  spring.  In  the 
sections  with  cooler  winters,  as  in  the  North,  the  seed 
is  sown  as  early  in  spring  as  it  is  possible  to  work  the 
soil. 

Throughout  the  South,  especially  where  freezing 
temperatures  occur  during  winter,  cold  frames  are 
valuable  for  rearing  seedlings  of  such  cool-season  crops 
as  cabbages,  lettuce,  onions  from  seed,  and  beets.  Seeds 
are  sown  in  October  and  November  directly  in  the  soil 
within  cold  frames.  Later,  in  January  or  February 
(according  to  the  locality  and  the  vegetable  grown),  the 
seedlings  thus  grown  are  planted  in  the  garden  and  pro- 
duce crops  in  March  and  April.  Inexperienced  gardeners 
in  southern  states  often  make  their  plantings  of  cool- 
season  vegetables  in  March  and  April,  which  is  the  season 
when  these  crops  should  be  ready  for  the  table. 

Cool-season  crops  that  endure  summer  heat  and  light. 
Vegetables  belonging  to  a  second  group  of  cool-season  crops 
have  longer  growth  periods  and  demand  cool  weather  dur- 
ing their  early  life,  but  they  continue  to  thrive  or  even 
mature  during  the  hot  weather.  Beets,  Swiss  chard, 
carrots,  parsnips,  salsify,  onions  from  seed,  New  Zealand 


152  Gardening 

spinach,  kale,  collard,  and  Irish  potatoes  are  of  this 
class. 

Early  varieties  of  some  of  these  vegetables  mature 
during  summer,  while  other  varieties  mature  later. 
Swiss  chard  and  New  Zealand  spinach  continue  to 
yield  leaves  for  use  as  greens  throughout  the  summer. 
In  general,  the  seeds  for  these  crops  may  be  planted  about 
the  dates  of  the  last  killing  frost  in  spring.  The  very 
early  varieties  of  beets,  onions,  carrots,  and  Irish  potatoes 
may  be  planted  somewhat  earlier. 

Perennial  vegetables  maturing  crops  in  cool  weather. 
The  standard  garden  crops  of  this  class  are  rhubarb, 
asparagus,  and  certain  types  of  perennial  onions  whose 
edible  parts  are  used  for  food  only  during  the  cool  weather 
of  early  spring.  These  plants  continue  to  live  and  grow 
throughout  the  growing  season,  and  they  are  left  in  the 
ground  over  winter. 

Warm-season  crops  of  short  growing  periods.  Many 
warm-season  crops  grow  quickly  enough  to  mature 
from  seed  planted  directly  in  the  garden.  Of  these  crops, 
sweet  corn  and  snap  beans  may  be  sown  about  the  date 
of  the  latest  killing  frost.  Okra,  cucumbers,  melons, 
squashes,  and  lima  beans  are  planted  about  two  or  three 
weeks  later,  or  after  the  soil  is  thoroughly  warmed. 

The  gardener  is  often  anxious  to  plant  these  crops 
early,  but  such  plantings  may  be  injured  by  cool  weather 
or  even  "  nipped  "  by  late  frosts.  Hence  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  make  successive  plantings.  If  the  first  plantings 
are  killed,  the  space  can  be  given  to  some  other  crop. 
Planting  both  early  and  late  varieties  of  these  vegetables 
is  advisable.  Extra  early  crops  can  be  secured  by  trans- 


The  Time  for  Planting  153 

planting  seedlings  raised  in  cold  frames  or  hotbeds,  pro- 
vided they  are  grown  in  berry  boxes  or  dirt  bands  so 
that  they  can  be  set  in  the  ground  without  injury  to  the 
root  system  (page  190). 

Warm-season  crops  of  long  growing  periods.  These 
are  slow-growing  vegetables,  and  in  many  of  our  northern 
states,  if  seeds  are  sown  in  the  ground,  the  plants  do  not 
mature  crops  before  the  autumn  frosts.  The  vegetables 
of  this  group,  which  should  be  grown  from  forced  plants, 
are  peppers,  tomatoes,  eggplants,  and  sweet  potatoes. 
To  grow  good  plants,  suitable  for  transplanting,  requires 
from  8  to  10  weeks,  except  the  sweet  potato,  which  re- 
quires only  about  5  weeks.  Transplanting  to  the  field 
is  done  after  all  danger  of  frost  is  past. 

Spring  and  summer  crops  in  the  South.  The  planting 
of  warm-season  vegetables  in  the  South  is  regulated 
according  to  temperature  quite  as  in  the  North,  except 
that  the  planting  is  done  at  an  earlier  calendar  date  and 
the  growing  season  is  longer.  Some  of  the  warm-season 
vegetables  like  bush  beans  do  not  thrive  during  the 
Southern  summer,  and  should  begin  to  mature  early. 
The  pole  beans,  however,  do  well  during  the  summer. 
Kentucky  Wonder  and  Southern  Prolific  are  good  summer 
varieties. 

When  seeds  of  the  long-period  warm-season  vegetables 
(okra,  peppers,  and  especially  tomatoes)  are  sown  in 
cool  soil,  even  in  the  South,  they  usually  fail  to  germi- 
nate ;  and  if  one  waits  until  the  ground  is  warm  enough 
to  plant  out  of  doors  before  sowing  such  seed,  the  crop 
matures  late.  The  early  crops  of  these  vegetables  are 
secured  by  growing  the  plants  under  protection  in  hot- 


154 

Presaue  Isle,  Me. 

Grand  Forks,  N.D. 
Burlington,  VI. 
Billings,  Montana     . 
Omaha,  Nebraska. 
Boston,  Mass. 
Pueblo,  Colorado 
Washington,,!).  C. 
WichitZ,Ka.n.    • 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Norfolk,  Virginia. 
Macon,  Georgia. 
Memphis,  Tenn. 
Montqomery.Ala. 
Columbia.,  S.C. 
Dallas,  Texas 
Charleston.  S.C. 
Jacksonville,  Fla. 
College  Stationjex. 

Tampa.  Florida.      \ 
Galveston,  Texas    j 

Key  West,  Florida,  \ 

Gardening 

1OO  GROWING  DAYS 

125 

16O 

190 

. 

,. 

22O 

M 

2-4O 

M 

26O 

. 

„ 

350 

, 

365 

Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr  May  Jun.  Jul.  Aug.  Sep.  Oct  Nov  Dec. 

FIG.  85 •  Chart  showing  average  length  of  growing  season  and  when  the  season 
begins  and  ends  in  various  localities  in  the  United  States.  Such  a  chart  for 
a  locality,  together  with  a  table  of  planting  dates  for  different  vegetables  (pages 
348  and  349)  are  a  great  aid  to  the  gardener  in  deciding  what  crops  to  grow 
and  when  to  plant  them. 

beds  and  cold  frames  and  transplanting  to  the  garden 
when  danger  of  frost  is  over.  This  may  be  in  February 
or  later,  according  to  the  locality. 

CLIMATE   AND    WEATHER 

Except  in  the  more  southern  parts  of  the  United  States 
the  actual  work  of  getting  the  soil  ready  for  planting  can 
be  done  only  when  the  ground  has  thawed  and  dried  out 
after  the  winter's  freezing.  As  spring  advances,  the 
heat  received  from  the  sun  during  the  day  remains  in 
the  earth  longer  at  night,  and  finally  the  soil  is  warm 
enough  throughout  the  night  to  serve  as  the  home  of 
the  roots  of  young  plants.  About  this  time,  and  seldom 
before,  the  soil  becomes  dry  enough  for  spading. 


The  Time  for  Planting 


155 


radish  -  early 

beans  -bush. 

peas 

lettuce. 

beets 

cucumber 

sweet  com 

bush  squash, 

onion  from,  sets 

car  rocs 

lima  beans 

tomatoes 

•melons 

pepper 

ey^  plant 

•vine  -squash 

onion  (dry)  from  seed 

sweet  potato 

parsnip  and  'salsify 


Days:0    30    60    90   120  150  180 

FIG.  86.  Chart  showing  growing  period  of  some  common  garden  crops.  The 
solid  line  shows  the  shortest  period  in  which  early  varieties  of  the  crop  can  be 
grown.  The  dotted  line  shows  the  additional  time  required  to  bring  later  varie- 
ties into  condition  for  use. 

It  is  usually  safe  to  begin  planting  the  crops  that  stand 
cool  weather  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  in  condition  to  be 
worked.  In  many  parts  of  the  southern  states  planting  may 
begin  in  January  or  February ;  in  the  more  northern  states 
the  same  crops  cannot  be  planted  until  April  or  later. 

The  growing  season.  The  actual  growing  season  of 
most  vegetables  extends  from  the  date  of  the  last  killing 
frost  in  the  spring  to  the  first  killing  frost  in  the  autumn. 
In  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  mainland  of  Florida 
only  half  the  winters  bring  killing  frosts.  As  far  north 
as  Tallahassee,  Florida,  and  Austin,  Texas,  and  also  in  a 
narrow  strip  along  the  coast  of  California  as  far  north  as 
San  Francisco,  the  length  of  the  growing  season  is  9 
months  or  longer.  In  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the 


156 


Gardening 


The  Time  for  Planting  157 

United  States  it  is  less  than  4  months.  Over  a  consid- 
erable area  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  and  west- 
ward, the  growing  season  for  garden  plants  is  not  more 
than  90  days. 

Planting  zones.  Although  certain  cool-season  crops 
can  be  planted  in  spring  before  the  last  frost,  warm- 
season  crops  should  not  be  planted  until  after  frost.  It  is 
therefore  very  convenient,  in  planning  for  the  spring 
planting  of  both  seeds  and  young  seedlings,  to  know 
about  when  the  latest  killing  frost  may  be  expected.  One 
cannot  tell  in  advance  exactly  on  what  calendar  date 
this  will  occur,  as  it  varies  from  year  to  year.  But  the 
beginner  in  gardening  will  be  helped  very  much  by  the 
maps,  prepared  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  which  show  the  planting  zones,  based  on 
the  occurrence  of  frost. 

In  making  these  maps,  lines  are  drawn  through  the 
points  where  the  average  date  of  the  last  killing  frost  in 
the  spring  occurs  on  the  ist  and  the  i5th  of  each  month. 
Thus  the  line  for  killing  frost  in  midwinter  crosses  central 
Florida  and  the  extreme  southern  part  of  Louisiana.  In 
a  narrow  belt  below  this  line  killing  frosts  are  likely  to 
occur  each  year,  and  below  that  they  are  likely  to  occur 
only  once  in  several  years.  Killing  frosts  usually  occur 
at  points  on  or  about  this  line  about  February  15. 

Two  weeks  later  (March  i)  localities  much  farther 
north  experience  their  latest  frost.  Each  two  weeks 
sees  the  frost  line  move  farther  north  (as  shown  on  the 
map,  Fig.  88)  until  about  June  i,  when  the  last  killing 
frosts  in  the  United  States  occur  in  the  extreme  north- 
ern parts  of  North  Dakota  and  Minnesota. 


Gardening 


The  Time  for  Planting 


159 


I 


I! 
II 


160  Gardening 

The  eight  lines  drawn  mark  off  into  zones  that  part  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In 
each  of  these  zones  the  range  of  planting  dates  in  spring 
averages  about  the  same.  The  earliest  dates  for  plant- 
ing the  various  vegetables  in  these  zones  are  given  in  the 
table  on  pages  348  and  349.  There  are,  of  course,  local 
conditions,  such  as  elevation,  drainage,  and  the  slope 
of  the  land,  not  indicated  on  a  map  of  this  kind,  which 
change  somewhat  the  planting  dates  as  given.  Each 
gardener  must  find  out  for  himself  the  more  exact 
planting  dates  for  his  own  locality  and  his  own  gar- 
den. 

The  western  part  of  the  United  States  is  broken  by 
mountains  and  streams,  which  cause  so  much  irregularity 
in  the  frost  dates  that  it  is  not  possible  to  mark  out  this 
area  into  definite  planting  zones. 

The  killing  frosts  of  autumn.  The  first  severe  frost 
in  autumn  kills  most  garden  plants.  Tomatoes,  corn, 
beans,  peppers,  and  eggplants  are  killed  or  badly  in- 
jured ;  beets,  carrots,  cabbages,  lettuce,  turnips,  pe-tsai, 
celery,  endive,  and  kale  are  not  severely  injured  and  may 
be  left  in  the  garden  until  just  before  the  ground  is  frozen. 
Parsnips  and  salsify  can  be  left  in  the  ground  over  winter, 
but  even  these  more  hardy  plants  practically  cease 
growth  with  the  coming  of  severe  frosts. 

In  planning  for  late  or  autumn  crops,  and  especially 
for  the  succession  crops,  the  gardener  should  know  (i) 
how  long  a  period  is  required  by  the  particular  crop  to 
mature,  and  (2)  when  the  first  killing  frosts  are  to  be 
expected.  This  is  especially  important  in  the  northern 
states,  where  frosts  come  earliest. 


The  Time  for  Planting 


161 


The  average  dates 
of  first  frosts  in  au- 
tumn are  shown  on  the 
map  on  page  159.  In 
making  this  map  effort 
was  made  to  leave  the 
zones  the  same  as  in 
Fig.  88,  but  the  boun- 
dary lines  do  not  coin- 
cide, because  different 
localities  having  the 
latest  killing  spring 
frosts  at  the  same 
time  do  not  always 
have  the  first  killing 
frosts  of  autumn  at 
the  same  time.  The 
map,  however,  aids  one 
in  judging  the  proba- 
ble date  when  the  first 
autumn  frost  will  kill 
garden  crops. 

A  chart  for  latest 
plantings.  Knowing 
the  date  when  killing 
frosts  may  be  expected 
and  the  number  of 
days  required  for  a  vegetable  to  mature,  one  can  de- 
cide when  the  latest  plantings  should  be  made,  or 
whether  the  entire  growing  season  is  too  short  for  a 
crop  to  reach  maturity.  This  information  has  been  ar- 


FIG.  90.  Low-growing  garden  crops  may 
be  protected  from  an  early  autumn  frost 
by  the  method  shown  above.  Peach  bas- 
kets or  light  boxes  are  inverted  at  inter- 
vals along  the  row,  and  boards  laid  on  them. 
Then  burlap  bags,  old  mattings  or  carpets, 
or  any  other  coverings  are  spread  over  the 
boards.  Sometimes  the  season  for  vegeta- 
bles like  beans,  tomatoes,  peppers,  and  egg- 
plant can  be  prolonged  for  weeks  by  pro- 
tecting the  plants  on  the  one  night  of  the 
frost. 


1 62  Gardening 

ranged  in  a  form  useful  for  ready  reference  in  the  chart 
on  page  350. 

Practical  use  of  these  maps  and  charts.  Judging  the 
probable  date  of  the  latest  frost  in  spring  helps  the  gar- 
dener to  determine  when  to  prepare  hotbeds  and  cold 
frames  and  when  to  sow  seeds  for  plants  that  are  to  be 
transplanted  to  the  garden. 

Knowing  the  temperature  needs  of  the  various  crops 
and  the  probable  or  average  date  of  latest  frost  helps  the 
gardener  to  judge  when  to  plant  seeds  or  transplant 
seedlings  in  the  open  ground  during  spring. 

Knowing  also  the  probable  date  of  the  first  frosts  in 
autumn  and  the  length  of  time  the  crops  require  for 
maturity  will  enable  the  gardener  to  plant  for  late  or 
follow  crops  at  the  best  time. 

Local  records  of  frost  dates.  The  gardener  should 
keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  frost  dates  —  the  earliest 
in  autumn  and  the  latest  in  spring  —  from  year  to  year. 
Such  a  record  can  easily  be  kept  at  the  public  school 
of  the  locality  in  connection  with  garden  work,  or  with 
studies  of  physical  geography  or  elementary  science. 

Reliable  local  records  give  an  opportunity  to  correct 
the  general  maps,  which  cannot  show  local  conditions. 

The  longer  such  records  are  kept,  the  more  valuable 
they  become  for  judging  the  average  or  probable  dates 
of  frost.  In  connection  with  these  records,  it  will  be 
helpful  to  keep  notes  regarding  varieties  planted,  plant- 
ing dates,  date  when  first  of  crop  is  gathered,  quantity 
and  quality  of  yield,  and  special  treatment  given  in 
respect  to  culture  or  fertilizers.  Such  data  will  help  the 
gardener  later,  in  planning  for  the  next  year's  garden,  in 


The  Time  for  Planting  163 

selecting  varieties  best  suited  to  local  conditions,  in 
planting  these  varieties  at  the  most  suitable  time,  and  in 
caring  for  them  so  that  they  will  produce  the  best  crops. 

Questions 

On  what  two  factors  does  the  right  planting  time  for  a  garden 
crop  depend  ?  Into  what  two  great  classes  may  crops  be  divided 
according  to  their  heat  requirements?  Why  are  some  cool- 
season  crops  grown  from  seed  planted  directly  in  the  garden  and 
others  by  the  transplanting  method  ?  Name  some  crops  grown  in 
each  of  these  ways.  What  conditions  other  than  a  cool  climate 
may  favor  the  growth  of  cool-season  crops?  What  perennial 
garden  vegetables  mature  in  the  spring? 

What  crops  mature  best  in  warm  weather?  Which  of  these 
are  grown  directly  from  seed  planted  in  the  garden  ?  Which  have 
to  be  started  under  glass  ? 

What  is  meant  by  the  "growing  season"?  What  is  meant 
by  a  "planting  zone"?  In  what  planting  zone  do  you  live? 
What  crops  listed  in  the  chart  on  page  155  can  reach  full  maturity 
in  your  garden?  In  your  region,  when  should  winter  cabbage, 
requiring  120  days  for  maturity,  be  planted?  curled  endive,  re- 
quiring 90  days  for  maturity  ?  How  can  peppers  and  eggplants 
be  grown  successfully  in  a  locality  having  an  outdoor  growing 
period  of  90  days  ?  Why  can  parsnip  and  salsify  be  grown  from 
seed  in  localities  where  the  growing  season  is  100  days  or  less? 
How  will  this  crop  compare  with  that  growing  where  there  are  125 
days  in  the  actual  growing  season  ? 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

i.  To  make  a  table  of  planting  dates.  Make  your  own  locality 
tables  of  earliest  and  latest  planting  dates,  similar  to  those  on 
pages  348-350.  Visit  successful  gardeners  and  see  if  your  table 
agrees  with  their  judgment  as  to  best  planting  dates.  Do  people 
usually  make  mistakes  by  planting  the  various  garden  crops  too 
early  or  too  late? 

Record  the  dates  of  the  last  killing  frost  in  spring  and  the  first 
killing  frost  in  autumn,  as  they  occur  in  your  locality.  Compare 


164  Gardening 

these  with  the  averages  on  your  map.  Write  to  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  and  get  the  record  of  frost  dates  at  the  observa- 
tion station  nearest  your  home. 

2.  To  learn  to  determine  planting  time  by  the  advancement  of 
vegetation.  The  Indians  ha<}  no  Weather  Bureau  records,  but 
they  judged  of  the  proper  time  for  planting  by  the  advancement  of 
the  vegetation.  "When  the  oak  leaves  are  as  big  as  a  mouse's 
ear,  then  plant  corn,"  is  the  rule  they  gave  the  New  England 
settlers.  Observe  the  early  flowers  and  shrubs  that  are  in  bloom 
and  the  buds  and  leaves  on  different  kinds  of  trees  as  each  vege- 
table is  planted.  A  record  of  these  observations  will  be  most 
helpful  in  judging  the  variation  in  planting  dates  required  by  the 
differences  in  seasons. 


CHAPTER  TWELVE 

HOW  TO   GROW  PLANTS   FROM   SEEDS 

The  sturdy  seedling  with  arched  body  comes 
Shouldering  its  way  and  sjiedding  tjie  earth  crumbs. 

ROBERT  FROST 

WHEN  a  live  seed  is  planted  under  proper  condi- 
tions, it  germinates.  The  tiny  plant  within  it  breaks  out 
of  the  seed  coat,  thrusts  its  roots  out  into  the  soil,  and 
pushes  its  stem  and  leaves  up  toward  the  light  and 
air. 

To  awaken  the  young  plant  in  the  seed  to  active  growth 
certain  conditions  must  be  supplied.  And  the  time 
when  the  little  plant  is  leaving  its  old  home  in  the  seed 
and  establishing  itself  under  new  conditions  is  the 
most  critical  period  of  its  whole  life.  To  get  his  crops 
properly  started,  therefore,  the  gardener  must  under- 
stand when  and  how  to  plant  his  seed  and  how  to  care 
for  the  seedlings  during  their  early  life. 

What  seeds  need  for  germination.  When  seeds  are 
planted,  they  lie  with  the  soil  particles  all  about  them. 
Everything  they  obtain  comes  through  the  soil,  and  if 
they  are  to  germinate  and  grow,  the  soil  must  be  in 
condition  to  supply  their  needs. 

First  water  soaks  into  the  seed  and  gives  the  living 
cells  of  the  embryo  the  moisture  required  for  growth. 
Water  also  softens  and  weakens  the  seed  coat,  which 
permits  the  growing  embryo  to  break  out  more  easily. 
Without  water,  seeds  will  not  germinate,  for,  as  we  know, 
dry  seeds  may  be  kept  for  years.  And  if  the  supply 
of  moisture  fails  after  germination  is  started,  the  little 
plant  dies.  When  the  embryo  has  once  begun  growth,  it 
is  not  able  to  stop  and  become  dormant  again  as  it  was 


i66 


Gardening 


in  the  seed.    A  continual  supply  of  water  is  therefore 
necessary. 

With  the  very  beginning  of  growth,  the  embryo  needs 

£    iSurfcuie  of  soil 


FIG.  91.  The  germination  of  corn,  bean,  and  squash.  In  the  corn  (a)  the 
little  plant  pushes  out  both  stem  and  root  and  grows  upward,  leaving  the  seed 
in  the  ground.  In  the  bean  (b)  the  root  grows  out  and  turns  downward,  and 
then  the  part  just  above  the  root  grows  into  an  arch  and  pushes  upward,  dragging 
the  seed  with  it.  After  this  the  seed  coat  is  burst  open  and  the  first  two  seed- 
ling leaves  (cotyledons)  are  freed.  In  the  squash  (c)  the  seed  coat  is  caught 
against  a  small  "peg"  just  above  the  root  and  held,  while  growth  forces  the 
cotyledons  upward  and  pulls  them  out  of  the  old  coat. 

an  additional  and  constant  supply  of  oxygen  for  respira- 
tion. This  comes  from  the  air  that  is  held  in  the  spaces 
in  the  soil.  But  if  water  completely  fills  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  particles  of  soil  in  which  seeds  are  planted,  the 
seeds  will  decay  because  of  lack  of  air,  just  as  they  do  if 
left  in  a  dish  with  water  covering  them.  Hence  seeds 
germinate  best  when  the  soil  about  them  is  moist  with 
capillary  water  but  has  no  free  water  in  it. 

A  certain  amount  of  warmth  is  necessary  to  start 
growth  in  a  seed.  The  amount  required  is  greater  for 
seeds  of  warm-season  vegetables  than  for  those  of 
cool-season  plants.  In  fact,  the  best  temperatures  for 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds          167 

germinating  the  seeds  of  various  garden  crops  differ  very 
widely. 

Seeds  of  a  cool-season  crop,  like  mustard  and  cabbage, 
will  often  germinate  well  at  temperatures  as  low  as  32° 
to  38°  F. ;  but  the  best  temperature  for  their  germina- 
tion is  about  60°  to  80°.  On  the  other  hand,  seed  of 
melons  will  usually  not  germinate  at  all  if  the  tempera- 
ture is  below  55°  ;  the  best  temperature  for  their  germi- 
nation is  somewhere  between  90°  and  100°. 

Germination  is  most  rapid  at  the  more  favorable 
temperatures.  Thus  muskmelons  require  12  days  to 
germinate  with  a  soil  temperature  of  60°,  but  will  germi- 
nate in  48  hours  with  a  soil  temperature  of  88°.  This 
shows  clearly  why  nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  planting 
seeds  of  the  warm-season  crops  while  the  soil  is  yet  cold. 
If  the  soil  temperature  is  too  low,  germination  will  not 
take  place  at  all  and  the  seed  may  decay. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  many  seeds  will  germi- 
nate well  at  somewhat  lower  temperatures  than  is  most 
favorable  for  the  later  growth  and  development  of  the 
plant.  The  garden  mustard  germinates  at  only  a  little 
above  the  freezing  point ;  but  by  the  time  the  seedlings 
have  become  established,  spring  is  more  advanced,  the 
air  and  the  soil  are  warmer,  and  the  temperatures  and 
hours  of  sunlight  are  more  nearly  those  required  for 
vigorous  growth.  The  natural  conditions  prevailing  in 
spring  and  in  summer  are  hence  quite  normal  for  the 
changing  needs  of  the  plant. 

The  differences  between  the  best  temperatures  for 
germination  and  for  growth  are  least  for  warm-season 
crops.  The  seeds  of  melons  germinate  best  at  90°,  which 


i68 


Gardening 


is  about  the  tempera- 
ture most  favorable 
for  vigorous  growth  of 
the  plant. 

Preparing  the  ground 
for  planting.  Before 
planting,  the  ground 
(which  has  already  been 
well  spaded  or  plowed 
and  perhaps  raked) 
should  be  raked  to 
break  up  or  remove 
lumps  and  to  secure  a 
surface  layer  of  fine 
soil.  It  is  usually  best 
to  plant  a  well-drained 
and  well-tilled  garden 
soon  after  spading,  be- 
fore the  top  layer  be- 
comes dried  out.  But 
if  a  garden  soil  is  poorly 
drained  and  cold,  it 

may  be  spaded  and  left  without  raking,  both  in  au- 
tumn and  in  spring.  For  a  time  this  will  make  the 
soil  cold  because  of  the  evaporation  of  water  from 
it ;  but  after  the  free  water  is  gone,  it  will  quickly  be- 
come warm.  Before  planting,  however,  the  surface 
should  be  well  raked.  The  lumps  will  break  up  more 
easily  and  a  better  supply  of  moisture  will  be  held  in 
the  ground  if  this  is  done  as  soon  after  a  rain  as  the 
soil  will  work  properly.  The  surface  mulch  will  check 


!FiG.  92.  Making  ready  for  planting. 
The  surface  of  the  soil  should  be  raked 
fine  before  marking  out  the  rows. 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds 


169 


evaporation  and  help  to  keep  the  soil  both  warm  and 
moist. 

How  to  lay  out  and  plant  a  row  of  seed.  The  seeds  of 
most  garden  vegetables  are  planted  in  shallow  trenches 
which  make  rows  across  the  garden.  In  order  to  get 
the  row  straight  it  is  a  good  plan  to  make  the  furrow 
along  a  tightly  stretched  line. 

First  drive  a  stake  firmly  at  each  end  of  a  row.  Then 
stretch  the  line  between  the  stakes  so  that  it  lies  on  the 
ground.  To  make  sure  that  the  line  is  straight,  lift  it 
near  the  center  to  a  height  of  a  few  inches  and  allow  it  to 


FIGS.  93  and  94.     Laying  out  the  rows.    The  furrow  at  the  left  is  for  fine  seeds. 
The  furrow  at  the  right  is  for  coarse  seeds  or  onion  sets. 


FIGS.  95  and  96.  Planting.  Only  an  expert  can  sow  fine  seeds  successfully 
from  the  packet  as  this  person  is  doing.  It  is  better  for  the  beginner  to  put  the 
seed  in  a  cup  and  take  out  a  few  at  a  time  between  his  finger  and  thumb.  Note 
the  even  spacing  of  the  onion  sets. 

snap  down.  It  will  then  be  straight  if  it  has  been 
stretched  taut. 

Then  make  a  furrow  by  drawing  the  edge  of  a  square 
hoe  along  against  the  line  and  pulling  the  dirt  to  the  side 
away  from  the  line.  In  this  way  it  is  easy  to  make 
quickly  a  straight  furrow  of  a  depth  suited  to  the  needs 
of  the  seed  to  be  planted. 

In  planting  small  seeds  like  those  of  radishes,  lettuce, 
onions,  carrots,  or  beets,  the  seeds  should  first  be  poured 
from  the  packet  into  a  shallow  dish  or  a  saucer.  Then  a 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds  171 


FIGS.  97  and  98.  Making  and  planting  a  double-row  furrow.  This  method  is 
often  practiced  on  very  rich  soils,  particularly  when  space  is  limited.  One  ad- 
vantage of  the  double  row  is  that  it  gives  increased  yields  for  a  given  amount  of 
space ;  another  is  that  the  plants  in  the  double  row  support  one  another  better 
than  in  the  single  row. 

few  seeds  may  be  taken  at  a  time  between  the  forefinger 
and  the  thumb  and  scattered  at  proper  distances  along 
the  bottom  of  the  trench.  If  even  an  experienced  gar- 
dener tries  to  sow  directly  from  the  packet  he  usually 
spills  the  seed  sooner  or  later. 

Spacing  the  rows.  Proper  spacing  of  rows  is  necessary 
to  give  the  plants  the  room  which  they  need  for  matur- 
ing. The  best  spacing  suitable  to  the  particular  crops 
to  be  planted,  to  the  sort  of  cultivation  employed,  and  to 


172  Gardening 

other  conditions  of  the  garden  should  be  determined  in 
advance  of  planting  at  the  time  when  the  garden  plan  is 
made  (see  Chapter  8).  Suggestions  as  to  the  proper 
spacing  of  rows  and  of  plants  in  the  row  will  be  given  in 
the  directions  for  the  culture  of  the  various  crops. 

Depth  of  planting.  If  seeds  are  planted  too  deep,  they 
may  die  and  rot  because  they  are  too  wet  and  too  cold 
and  do  not  have  enough  air.  If  they  are  planted'  too 
shallow,  there  is  danger  that  they  will  dry  out  or  be 
washed  out  by  heavy  rains. 

Different  kinds  of  seeds  have  different  germination 
needs  and  must  be  .planted  at  different  depths.  Corn, 
peas,  and  beans  should  be  planted  2  or  3  inches  deep ; 
seeds  of  beets,  cucumbers,  squashes,  and  melons  about 
i  inch  deep;  and  small  seeds  like  those  of  carrots, 
radishes,  lettuce,  and  parsnips  only  about  \  inch.  The 
seedlings  from  the  smaller  seeds  are  not  so  strong  as  those 
of  larger  seeds  and  hence  are  not  able  to  push  their  stems 
and  first  leaves  ,up  through  so  much  soil.  But  one 
cannot  follow  exactly  any  "  rule  of  thumb  "  in  planting. 
Under  the  discussion  of  the  various  crops  later,  sugges- 
tions as  to  planting  will  be  given.  However,  it  is  well 
to  remember  that,  generally  speaking,  seeds  should  be 
planted  deeper  in  a  loose,  warm  soil  than  in  a  cold,  heavy 
soil;  and  later  in  the  season  when  the  ground  is  warm 
they  should  be  planted  somewhat  deeper  than  in  early  spring. 
Peas  might  well  be  planted  3  inches  deep  in  light,  sandy 
soil,  but  not  more  than  i  inch  deep  in  heavy  soils. 

Covering  seeds.  After  sowing,  the  seeds  should  be 
covered  with  soil,  and  usually  this  soil  should  be  firmed 
about  the  seeds.  Firming  brings  the  soil  particles  close 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds 


173 


against  the  seeds,  so  that 
the  soil  water  can  pass 
into  them  and  the  first 
roots  of  the  little  plants 
can  readily  come  into 
contact  with  the  soil. 
It  also  increases  the 
amount  of  water  in  a 
given  volume  of  the  soil 
by  pressing  the  soil  parti- 
cles closer  together,  thus 
reducing  the  air  space. 

A  sandy  soil  or  a  dry, 
loose  soil  should  be 
firmed  by  walking  slowly 
along  the  row  of  planted 
and  covered  seeds,  tread- 
ing the  soil  with  the  ball 
of  the  foot  but  not  with 
the  heel .  A  loam  should 
be  firmed  in  the  same 
way  when  it  is  dry.  If 

a  soil  is  moist,  light  strokes  with  the  back  of  the  hoe 
will  press  it  down  sufficiently  under  most  circumstances. 
When  very  dry,  a  clay  soil  may  thus  be  firmed  with 
the  hoe ;  but  firming  down  a  moist  clay  soil  in  any 
manner  will  make  it  too  compact. 

After  the  firming,  fine  dust  from  between  the  rows 
should  be  lightly  raked  over  the  planted  row.  This 
leaves' a  thin  layer  of  dust  mulch  over  the  compacted  or 
firmed  soil. 


FIG.  99.  Covering  the  seeds.  Fine  soil 
should  be  drawn  carefully  and  evenly  over 
the  row. 


Gardening 


Proper  firming  of  the 
soil  is  especially  im- 
portant in  summer  plant- 
ing. Without  it  the 
seeds  may  lie  in  the 
loose,  dry  soil  and  fail 
to  germinate.  Or  the 
little  seedlings  may  die 
after  germination  starts, 
because  the  tiny  rootlets 
may  find  their  way  into 
air  pockets  among  the 
lumps  of  loose  soil  in- 
stead of  getting  into 
contact  with  soil  parti- 
cles that  will  furnish 
the  water  that  the  plants 
must  have. 

Watering  at  planting 
time.  Watering  imme- 
diately after  planting 
seeds  is  not  advisable. 
It  compacts  the  surface 
layer  of  soil ;  then,  when 
this  dries,  it  cracks  and 
gives  out  moisture  very  rapidly.  If  the  ground  is  dry, 
soak  the  area  to  be  planted  some  24  hours  before  plant- 
ing. Then,  after  planting,  rake  up  a  surface  mulch.  To 
hold  the  moisture  in  the  soil  it  is  often  advisable  to 
shade  carrots  and  Chinese  cabbage  that  are  planted 
in  hot  weather  until  the  young  plants  begin  to  appear. 


»* 

,                   -.    J5   / 

FIG.  100.  Watering  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow  before  planting  the  seed.  In  dry 
weather  this  is  often  done  where  the  soil 
is  sandy  or  loose,  but  with  clay  soils  care 
must  be  used  to  prevent  puddling. 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds          175 

REARING    SEEDLINGS    FOR   TRANSPLANTING 

Many  vegetables  can  be  brought  to  maturity  earlier 
by  starting  the  plants  indoors.  The  seeds  are  planted  in 
boxes  or  flats  or  even  in  cans  that  are  filled  with  earth, 
and  the  growing  seedlings  are  kept  in  warm  rooms  or  in 
hotbeds.  Literally,  these  boxes  are  small  gardens  in 
which  crops  are  grown  until  it  is  warm  enough  to  plant 
them  out  of  doors.  As  soon  as  the  weather  permits,  the 
seedlings  are  transplanted  to  the  garden;  and  because 
they  are  already  of  considerable  size  and  have  roots  and 
leaves  developed,  they  mature  sooner  than  the  same 
crops  would  if  the  seed  were  sown  in  the  garden. 

In  this  way  cool-season  crops  like  cabbage,  pe-tsai,  and 
lettuce  may  be  brought  to  maturity  before  the  hot 
weather  of  summer  arrives.  Long-period  warm-season 
crops  like  tomatoes,  eggplants,  peppers,  and  sweet  po- 
tatoes can  thus  be  had  earlier  in  the  season  and  may 
also  be  matured  where  the  outdoor  season  is  shorter  than 
the  plant  requires  for  full  growth. 

One  can  often  buy  plants,  ready  for  transplanting,  of 
such  crops  as  cabbages,  tomatoes,  eggplants,  and  pep- 
pers ;  but  often  these  plants  are  poorly  grown  and  the 
name  of  the  variety  is  uncertain.  The  gardener  will 
find  it  to  be  an  advantage  if  he  can  grow  his  own  seed- 
lings for  transplanting,  unless  he  can  buy  good  plants 
from  a  reliable  source. 

Making  flats.  Flats  are  shallow  boxes  or  trays,  about 
3  inches  in  depth,  in  which  seedlings  are  grown.  They 
are  most  easily  made  by  sawing  off  the  bottom  part  of 
boxes  of  suitable  sizes.  Or  they  can  be  made  from 


176 


Gardening 


boards  cut  to  the  right 
form  and  nailed  together. 
A  few  holes,  \  inch  in 
diameter,  should  be 
bored  in  the  bottom  to 
allow  good  drainage. 

It  is  well  to  make 
flats  of  such  sizes  that 
they  will  fit  into  avail- 
able hotbeds  and  cold 
frames  without  loss  of 
space.  Six  flats,  20X14 
inches,  conveniently  fill 
a  single  sash  6X3  feet 
in  area.  Smaller  flats, 
however,  are  easier  for 
children  to  handle. 

The  seed  may  be  germinated  in  small  earthen  pans 
or  in  small  boxes  (cigar  boxes  will  do),  filled  with 
ordinary  garden  loam  mixed  with  sand,  and  the  seedlings 
"picked"  out,  after  germination,  into  the  larger  flats 
containing  richer  soil. 

Soil  for  the  flats.  A  good  soil  for  the  seed  flat  is  made 
by  mixing  sand  with  the  ordinary  garden  loam.  If 
a  rich  soil  containing  decaying  manure  and  compost  is 
used,  it  is  likely  to  force  the  young  plants  too  rapidly 
and  lead  to  development  of  "  damping-off  "  diseases. 

For  filling  flats  to  which  seedlings  are  to  be  trans- 
planted, a  good  soil  can  be  made  from  equal  parts  of  sand, 
good  garden  soil,  and  well-rotted  manure  or  compost. 
Sift  the  sand  and  soil  through  a  fine  sieve  (galvanized 


States  Relations  Service 
FIG.  101.     The  easiest  way  to  make  a  flat. 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds 


177 


wire  screening  of  J-inch  mesh  can  be  used  in  making  the 
soil  sieve),  but  put  the  manure  through  a  still  coarser  one 
(| -inch  mesh) .  The  sieves  can  easily  be  made  by  nailing 
screening  to  wooden  frames  of  convenient  size. 
Thoroughly  mix  the  sifted  materials,  and  if  dry,  sprinkle 
with  water  until  moist. 

Such  a  soil  is  high  in  fertility,  and  it  will  remain 
loose  for  some  time  under  repeated  waterings.  If  sand 
is  lacking,  the  drainage  is  likely  to  be  poor  ;  if  there  is  too 
much  manure,  the  plants  are  likely  to  grow  too  rapidly  and 
become  "  soft"  and  subject  to  "  damping-off  "  diseases. 


FIG.  102.  A  gardener's  equipment  for  preparing  the  soil  for  flats  and 
pots.  The  earth  is  piled  upon  the  bench  in  readiness  for  sifting.  The  soil 
sieves  have  meshes  of  different  sizes. 


Gardening 


FIG.  103.  A  professional  gardener  planting  seed  in  a  flat.  The  flats  are  con- 
veniently supported  on  a  board  laid  between  the  greenhouse  benches,  the  rows 
are  laid  out  by  a  wooden  strip  of  proper  width,  and  the  soil  is  firmed  with  the 
tool  resting  against  the  left  side  of  the  flat. 

Cover  the  drainage  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  flat  with 
pieces  of  coal,  small  stones,  or  broken  earthenware. 
Then  fill  the  flat  with  the  prepared  soil,  level  off  even 
with  the  top,  and  firm  the  soil  by  pressure  with  a  piece 
of  board.  The  flat  is  now  ready  for  the  planting  of  the 
seed  or  for  the  work  of  transplanting. 

Planting  the  seeds  in  the  flat.  Seeds  may  be  scattered, 
or  they  may  be  sown  in  rows  in  the  flat.  If  they  are 
planted  in  rows,  make  furrows  about  2  inches  apart  and 
about  |  inch  deep ;  this  is  deep  enough  for  the  small 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds          179 

seeds  of  the  vegetables  usually  thus  grown.  Scatter 
seeds  about  i  to  J  inch  apart  in  the  row  and  cover  them 
by  sifting  on  more  soil.  If  the  seeds  are  scattered  broad- 
cast in  the  flat,  -J-  inch  of  soil  should  be  sifted  over  the 
seeds  after  they  are  sown. 

Place  labels  at  the  ends  of  the  rows,  or  if  all  rows  are 
of  one  kind,  at  the  middle  of  one  side.  Record  the 
name  of  the  variety  and  the  date  of  the  planting  on  each 
label. 

The  first  waterings  should  be  made  gently  with  a  fine 
spray.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  lay  a  cloth  (a  coarse  gunny 
sack  will  do)  over  the  flat  and  sprinkle  water  over  it, 
allowing  the  water  to  trickle  through  into  the  soil. 
After  the  seeds  have  been  planted,  the  flats  are  ready  to 
be  placed  where  the  seeds  and  seedlings  ill  obtain 
warmth  and  sunshine.  Water  must  be  supplied  daily  as 
needed. 

Growing  seedlings  in  window  boxes.  Seedlings  of 
vegetables  like  cabbages,  tomatoes,  and  peppers  can 
be  grown  in  flats  in  the  home.  As  a  rule,  the  plants 
should  have  all  the  light  a  south  window  will  give.  Turn 
the  flats  from  day  to  day  so  that  all  sides  may  have  an 
opportunity  to  face  the  light.  Extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
injure  the  plants ;  the  room  should  not  become  too 
hot  by  day  or  too  cold  at  night.  If  the  room  approaches 
freezing  temperatures  during  the  night,  the  flats  should 
be  removed  from  the  window  to  a  warmer  place.  During 
the  night  the  flats  may  be  covered  with  newspapers  or 
with  a  blanket. 

An  easy  way  to  do  this  is  to  set  the  flats  on  the  seats 
of  two  chairs  that  face  each  other  closely  and  then  place 


i8o 


Gardening 


a  blanket  over  the  backs  so  that  it  reaches  to  the  floor 
all  around.  A  well-lighted  basement  in  which  the  fur- 
nace is  located  is  often  warm  enough  for  growing  seed- 
lings. 

Since  water  gives  off  its  heat  slowly,  watering  with 
lukewarm  water  at  bedtime  helps  to  keep  the  soil  warm 
at  night,  provided  evaporation  is  checked.  But  be- 
cause of  the  cooling  effect  of  the  evaporation  of  water, 
it  is  well,  unless  the  plants  are  covered  at  night,  to 
water  in  the  forenoon  so  that  the  top  layers  of  soil  are 
rather  dry  at  night. 

The  hotbed.  A  hotbed  is  simple  in  its  construction 
and  is  not  necessarily  expensive.  It  consists  of  a  glass- 
covered  frame,  which  is  placed  over  a  bed  of  decaying 
manure.  The  frame  and  glass  keep  out  the  cold  air  and 
keep  in  the  warmth ;  the  decaying  manure  supplies  heat ; 
the  glass  allows  the  sunlight  to  enter  during  the  day. 

The  frame  may  be  made  of  boards  ij  or  2  inches  thick 


Glass 


Plan  of 


S-'-B 7^>-^  -=t^  •>  :'  '•  >  /  ^1fc-d^y$^a^^^^~«a: 


FIG.  104.     Diagram  showing  the  details  in  the  construction  of  a  hotbed. 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds 


181 


and  is  usually  of  the  shape  shown  in  the  accompanying 
diagrams.    The  top  is  fitted  with  glass  sash,  which  is 


FIG.  105.    Diagram  showing  the  completed  frame  of  a  hotbed. 

given  a  sloping  surface  to  shed  the  rain.  The  standard 
size  for  the  sash  is  3  X  6  feet ;  so  a  frame  6X6  feet  will 
be  covered  by  two  sash.  A  hotbed  of  this  size  is  large 
enough  to  supply  plants  for  the  small  home  garden,  but 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  frame  may  be  made  to  suit  any 
sash  that  may  be  at  hand.  The  sash  of  the  storm  windows 
may  be  used  as  a  covering,  as  the  hotbed  is  not  started 
until  the  most  severe  weather  of  winter  is  past. 

The  hotbed  should  be  located  on  a  well-drained  spot. 
Its  sloping  surface  should  be  fully  exposed  to  the  south. 
On  the  north  it  should  be  protected  by  a  fence,  a  hedge, 
a  wall,  or  a  building.  It  should  be  near  a  supply  of 
water  and  within  the  vicinity  of  a  building  or  basement 
in  which  the  work  of  seed  sowing  and  transplanting  from 
flat  to  flat  can  be  done  very  easily. 

Making  the  hotbed.  To  make  a  pit  hotbed,  dig  a  pit 
about  20  inches  deep  and  of  the  exact  size  and  shape 
of  the  frame  to  be  used.  Then  drive  a  post  at  least  6 
inches  in  diameter  at  each  corner,  so  that  all  the  tops 
are  on  a  level  about  6  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 


1 82  Gardening 


FIG.  106.    The  first  step  in  preparing  the  hotbed.     Throwing  in  and  trampling 
down  the  manure. 

The  frame  is  then  placed  in  the  pit,  with  the  corners 
resting  on  these  posts,  and  a  nail  driven  through  the 
frame  into  the  post  at  each  corner.  This  arrangement 
holds  the  frame  firmly  in  place  and  keeps  it  from  settling. 

Next,  pack  fresh  horse  manure  firmly  into  the  pit  to 
a  depth  of  about  16  inches.  The  manure  should  be 
about  two-thirds  straw  and  should  not  have  been  exposed 
to  the  weather.  It  is  best  for  use  when  about  10  days  old 
and  after  it  has  been  kept  in  a  pile  and  forked  over  two 
or  three  times.  None  but  horse  or  mule  manure  is 
satisfactory.  Place  the  manure  in  the  pit  in  thin  layers, 
trample  each  layer  until  it  is  compact,  and  be  sure  that 
the  corners  are  well  filled  and  that  the  surface  is  level. 

If  seedlings  are  to  be  grown  in  flats,  from  4  to  6  inches 
of  sand  is  then  placed  on  the  manure.  If  seeds  are  to 
be  sown  directly  in  the  bed  itself  (this  is  not  recom- 
mended) ,  good  garden  soil  is  used  instead  of  sand.  This 
brings  the  level  of  the  material  within  the  frame  up  to 
the  level  of  the  ground  outside.  Above  this  the  front  of 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds          183 


FIG.  107.    Adding  the  soil  and  raking  it  smooth. 

the  frame  rises  8  inches  and  the  back  14  inches.  Earth 
or  manure  should  be  banked  about  the  frame  to  its  upper 
edge. 

The  pit  is  finally  well  sprinkled  with  water  and  the 
sash  put  in  place.  The  decay  of  the  manure  gives  rather 
violent  heating  within  a  few  days,  but  after  about  10 
days  the  temperature  lowers ;  the  frame  may  then  be 
ventilated  and  flats  containing  seeds  placed  within. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  seeds  be  planted  or  flats 
with  seeds  be  placed  within  the  hotbed  during  the  period 
of  violent  heating.  The  temperature  may  be  determined 
by  the  use  of  a  hotbed  or  a  dairy  thermometer.  Thrust 
the  bulb  end  into  the  manure.  The  temperature  will 
often  rise  to  110°  F.  or  higher ;  when  it  drops  to  80°  or 
85°,  and  not  before,  it  is  safe  to  place  seeds  in  flats 
within  the  frame. 

Surface  hotbeds  are  made  by  placing  the  frame  on 
a  bed  of  manure  which  is  placed  upon  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  No  pit  is  dug.  The  frame  is  constructed  as  for 


1 84 


Gardening 


FIG.  108.  Planting  the  seeds  and  marking  the  rows.  Here  the  seeds  are  be- 
ing planted  directly  in  the  soil  of  the  hotbed,  but  usually  it  is  better  to  plant 
them  in  flats  and  set  the  flats  in  the  hotbed. 

a  pit  hotbed.  Manure  is  packed  in  the  frame,  and  sand 
added  as  in  the  pit  hotbed.  If  kept  well  banked,  the 
surface  hotbed  is  very  satisfactory. 

Management  of  the  hotbed.  To  use  a  hotbed  success- 
fully, the  amount  of  moisture  and  the  temperature  within 
it  must  be  properly  regulated.  Water  should  always  be 
applied  in  a  fine  spray  from  a  sprinkling  can  or  a  hose. 
The  soil  in  the  flats  should  never  become  dry,  but  too 
much  water  is  to  be  avoided.  On  cool,  cloudy  days  very 
little  or  even  no  water  is  needed.  On  bright,  sunny  days 
the  flats  should  be  watered  in  the  early  forenoon  and  the 
bed  ventilated  (unless  the  air  outside  is  very  cold)  so 
that  the  leaves  of  the  plants  will  become  dry  before  night. 

Ventilation  also  is  needed  to  regulate  the  temperature. 
On  warm,  sunshiny  days  the  hotbeds  may  become  too 
warm  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  To  reduce  the  warmth, 
raise  one  edge  of  the  sash  on  the  side  away  from  the  wind 
and  place  under  it  a  block  of  wood  or  a  brick  to  hold 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds          185 

the  sash  at  the  height  desired.  If  the  weather  suddenly 
becomes  cold  or  cloudy,  the  sash  should  be  shut  down. 

In  extremely  cold  weather,  and  especially  at  night, 
the  sash  may  be  covered  with  straw,  blankets,  old  carpet, 
or  the  matting  which  is  made  for  this  use.  As  spring 
advances,  the  sash  may  be  raised  higher  and  for  longer 
periods  during  the  day,  until  finally  they  may  be  re- 
moved, to  be  replaced  only  on  cool  nights. 

At  the  time  seedlings  burst  from  the  soil  they  may  be 
somewhat "  burned  "  by  midday  sunshine.  This  may  be 
prevented  by  spreading  a  single  sheet  of  newspaper  over 
them  during  the  middle  of  the  day  for  a  day  or  two. 
Freshly  transplanted  seedlings  should  thus  be  shaded. 
Plants  standing  in  the  middle  of  the  frame  will  receive 
more  light  than  those  at  the  edge ;  so  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  shift  and  turn  the  flats  from  time  to  time.  Usually 
the  growing  plants  are  given  all  the  sunlight  that  is 
available. 

After  it  is  properly  started,  only  a  few  minutes  are 
required  each  day  to  care  for  the  hotbed ;  but  daily 
attention  and  management,  according  to  changing 
weather,  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  best  results. 

Construction  and  use  of  a  cold  frame.  A  cold  frame 
consists  of  a  frame  with  a  sash  or  cloth  covering.  It  is 
usually  placed  directly  on  the  ground.  No  artificial  heat 
is  supplied  as  in  the  hotbed,  but  the  frame  affords  pro- 
tection from  the  cold  air  of  the  outside.  The  covering  of 
sash  or  cloth  helps  to  retain  over  night  the  heat  received 
from  the  sun  during  the  day. 

Cold  frames  are  especially  useful  for  hardening  seed- 
lings previously  grown  in  a  hotbed.  This  is  done  by 


1 86 


Gardening 


FIG.  109.     A  cold  frame  at  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden.     Flats 
lings  are  placed  in  the  cold  frame  for  growth  and  for  hardening. 


transferring,  at  the  proper  time,  the  flats  of  seedlings  to 
the  cold  frame.  Seedlings  to  be  transplanted  to  the 
garden  in  late  spring  or  during  summer  may  be  grown 
directly  in  the  soil  of  the  cold  frames.  The  soil  should 
be  well  tilled  and  should  contain  only  small  amounts  of 
manure.  One  should  never  stand  or  walk  directly  on 
the  soil  in  a  cold  frame,  but  on  a  board  placed  on  the 
surface  within  the  frame. 

Transplanting  from  flats  to  other  flats.  It  is  not 
best  to  leave  seedlings  of  cabbages,  tomatoes,  celery, 
lettuce,  peppers,  and  eggplants  in  the  flats  in  which  the 
seed  was  sown  until  they  are  large  enough  to  transplant 
to  the  garden.  The  soil  is  likely  to  become  compacted, 
and  the  seedlings  are  usually  too  crowded.  It  is  there- 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds          187 

fore  best  to  reset  the  plants  once  or  even  twice  before 
they  are  placed  in  the  garden. 

When  the  seedlings  are  about  2  inches  tall,  they  may 
be  transplanted  into  flats  which  are  filled  with  somewhat 
richer  soil  than  was  used  in  the  seed  flats.  In  this  trans- 
planting the  best  plants  can  be  selected  and  respaced 
so  that  they  will  have  sufficient  room  for  further  develop- 
ment. One  can  thus  avoid  the  common  mistake  of 
growing  many  more  seedlings  than  are  actually  needed 
and  of  leaving  them  so  crowded  that  none  of  ttie  plants 
will  be  well  developed. 

For  example,  if  one  needs  36  tomato  plants  for  the 


FIG.  no.     A  gardener  transplanting  seedlings  to  a  second  flat.     Only  the  more 
vigorous  seedlings  are  selected  for  transplanting. 


1 88 


Gardening 


FIG.  in.  A  home  gardener  transplanting  her  seedlings.  They  were  grown 
in  a  small  window  box  and  are  being  transplanted  to  a  flat  to  give  them  more 
room  and  to  cause  root  development. 

garden,  a  small  packet  of  seed  may  be  planted  in  a  seed 
pan  or  a  flat  12X12  inches,  or  in  a  part  of  a  larger  flat. 
Perhaps  200  seeds  will  germinate,  and  the  seedlings 
will  be  more  or  less  crowded  and  irregularly  spaced. 
Of  these,  50  of  the  best  plants  may  be  selected  and  re- 
planted in  flats  so  that  they  stand  at  least  2  inches  apart. 
In  this  way  enough  plants  for  the  garden  will  be  obtained, 
and  the  chances  are  that  most  of  these  will  be  strong 
and  vigorous. 

A  second  advantage  in  transplanting  seedlings  sev- 
eral times  is  that  it  often  stimulates  a  more  vigorous 
development  of  the  roots.  This  is  especially  true  of 
celery.  The  main  taproot,  which  tends  to  go  straight 
down,  is  broken,  and  side  roots  branch  out  which  make  a 
much  larger  and  better  plant. 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds          189 

For  cabbage,  kohl-rabi,  head  lettuce,  tomato,  pep- 
per, eggplant,  and  celery  the  young  seedlings  should 
be  transplanted  from  the  seed  pan  to  flats  when  from 
i  to  2  inches  in  height  and  given  plenty  of  space  in  the 
new  flat.  Transplanting  from  seed  pans  to  flats,  as  the 
plants  become  larger,  requires  more  room  in  hot- 
beds;  but  by  this  time  the  weather  will  probably  be 
mild  enough  to  allow  the  use  of  cold  frames  or  temporary 
shelters  for  some  of  the  flats. 

Special  methods  of  growing  seedlings.  The  seedlings 
of  bean,  corn,  pumpkin,  squash,  cucumber,  and  okra 
may  also  be  started  in  a  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  cold 


FIG.  112.  Carrying  seedlings  that  have  been  grown  in  a  cold  frame  to  the 
garden  for  transplanting.  This  picture  illustrates  the  proper  way  of  carrying 
a  flat.  Notice  that  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  are  crooked  around  the  corner 
of  the  box.  By  holding  a  flat  in  this  way  there  is  no  danger  of  tipping  it,  or  of 
losing  the  balance  of  the  box  and  thus  dropping  it. 


IQO 


Gardening 


FIG.  113.  A  flat  filled  with  dirt  bands.  A  dirt  band  is  very  easily  made;  it 
is  merely  a  strip  of  cardboard  folded  to  form  a  square,  as  shown  in  this  illustra- 
tion. Plants  grown  in  this  manner  can  be  transplanted  with  almost  no  dis- 
turbance of  the  roots. 

frame.  But  seedlings  of  these  grow  rapidly  and  have 
rather  coarsely  branched  roots  which  make  transplanting 
difficult.  They  may  be  handled  successfully  by  growing 
a  few  seedlings  each  in  wooden  berry  boxes,  pots,  or  any 
containers  of  small  size. 

When  grown  in  flats,  the  plants  may  be  arranged  in 
groups  of  from  three  to  five  and  the  roots  of  each  group 
kept  separate  by  bands  of  cardboard,  in  what  is  called  the 
"  dirt-band  "  method.  In  transplanting  to  the  garden, 
the  mass  of  soil  with  the  enclosed  roots  is  not  allowed  to 
break  up.  Tomatoes  and  cabbages  can  thus  be  grown 
with  a -single  plant  in  each  "  dirt  band  "  (see  Figure  113). 

Hardening  plants.  Plants  should  never  be  trans- 
planted to  the  garden  without  hardening.  The  sudden 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds          191 

change  from  the  warm  air  of  the  hotbed  or  greenhouse 
to  the  open  air  may  so  injure  the  tender  plant  that  its 
growth  will  be  checked  for  days.  As  the  warmer  weather 
approaches  and  the  plants  that  are  being  grown  in  flats 
become  larger,  they  should  be  exposed  to  the  open  air 
for  longer  periods  each  day.  Finally,  they  may  be  left 
uncovered,  even  throughout  the  night.  Shortly  before 
the  plants  are  to  be  placed  in  the  garden,  flats  may  be 
left  without  any  other  protection  except  that  of  near-by 
buildings  which  keep  off  the  winds.  During  the  period  of 
hardening,  the  plants  should  be  rather  sparsely  watered, 
but  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  them  from  becom- 
ing wilted ;  their  growth  must  not  be  checked  in  any 
way. 

Transplanting  to  the  garden.  Water  the  flats  contain- 
ing the  plants  thoroughly,  at  least  an  hour  before  the  work 
is  to  begin.  This  allows  the  cells  of  the  plant  to  become 
well  filled  with  water,  and  it  causes  soil  to  adhere  to  the 
roots.  Dig  well  under  the  plants,  breaking  the  roots 
as  little  as  possible.  Reset  a  plant  immediately,  before 
it  has  time  to  wilt.  Make  a  suitable  hole  with  a  trowel, 
set  the  plant  somewhat  deeper  than  it  formerly  grew, 
completely  fill  in  about  the  roots  with  fine  soil,  and 
gently  firm  the  soil  about  the  roots.  Be  sure  that  the 
soil  is  carefully  filled  in  so  that  no  "  air  pockets  "  are 
left  about  the  roots.  In  the  school  garden  or  in  the  home 
garden  there  are  usually  so  few  plants  to  be  transplanted 
that  one  can  afford  to  take  time  to  do  the  work  well. 
Water  the  plants  by  applying  small  amounts  in  a  fine 
spray  at  intervals  of  a  few  minutes,  so  that  the  water 
sinks  into  the  soil  without  any  puddling. 


192 


Gardening 


FIG.  114.  Right  and  wrong  ways  to  treat  a  potted  seedling  before  transplant- 
ing. The  plant  at  the  left  was  kept  well  watered  and  the  roots  were  undisturbed. 
The  transplanting  will  check  its  growth  only  slightly,  if  at  all.  The  roots  of  the 
plant  in  the  center  were  also  undisturbed,  but  the  plant  has  been  given  no  water 
for  24  hours.  It  will  probably  be  set  back  severely  in  its  growth.  The  plant  at 
the  right  was  kept  watered,  but  the  roots  were  pulled  from  the  soil  and  left  ex- 
posed to  the  air  for  about  an  hour.  It  will  take  it  some  time  to  get  a  new  root 
system  fixed  in  the  soil.  The  plant  on  the  left  will  make  a  better  plant  and  will 
mature  fruit  at  least  one  or  two  weeks  before  either  of  the  others. 

Replanting,  even  when  carefully  done,  destroys  some 
of  the  roots  of  a  plant,  and  for  a  time  those  that  are  left 
may  be  unable  to  supply  the  leafy  parts  with  all  the 
water  they  need.  For  this  reason  freshly  reset  plants 
should  be  kept  shaded  from  direct  sunlight  for  at  least 
24  hours  after  the  replanting;  in  hot,  dry  weather  a 
shading  for  3  days  may  be  necessary.  Protection  from 
the  sunlight  may  be  had  by  arranging  a  sheet  of  news- 
paper, lifted  in  the  center  like  a  wedge  tent  (not  as  a 
cone) ,  with  dirt  or  stones  thrown  on  the  corners  to  hold 
it  in  place ;  or  a  shingle  may  be  thrust  in  the  ground 
on  the  sunny  side.  Do  not  place  earthen  or  paper  pots 
over  young  plants  to  shade  them,  as  this  does  not  allow 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds 


193 


air  and  light  to  harden  them  properly.  The  plants  will 
often  become  more  tender  when  thus  covered. 

It  is  best  to  reset  plants  late  in  the  afternoon  or  during 
damp,  cloudy  weather  if  possible.  In  transplanting  leafy 
plants  like  lettuce  and  cabbage,  it  is  a  common  practice 
to  cut  or  shear  away  part  of  the  larger  leaves  and  thus 
decrease  loss  of  water  by  reducing  the  leaf  surface. 
Plants  grown  in  pots,  berry  boxes,  or  dirt  bands  can  be 
transplanted  with  very  little  injury  to  the  root  system. 

If  compelled  to  buy  plants  for  transplanting,  the 
gardener  should  select  the  most  stocky  plants  and  in- 
sist that  they  be  carefully  removed  from  the  earth, 


U.  S.  D.  A. 


FIG.  115.  The  effect  of  transplanting  on  the  root  development  of  celery  plants. 
The  two  plants  at  the  left  were  transplanted  several  times ;  those  at  the  right 
were  grown  without  transplanting. 


194 


Gardening 


sprinkled  with  water,  and 
completely  wrapped  to 
prevent  drying  out.  They 
should  then  be  replanted 
as  soon  as  possible,  us- 
ing great  care  in  handling 
them  to  prevent  bruising. 
Pulling  plants  carelessly 
from  flats,  bruising  and 
breaking  them  in  han- 
dling, and  leaving  them  to 
dry  out  before  replanting 
will  surely  result  in  a 
tardy  growth  and  perhaps 
failure  of  the  crop. 

The  outdoor  seedling 
bed.  Seedlings  for  trans- 
planting may  often  be 
grown  to  advantage  in  an 

TIG.  no.     btrawberry  boxes  make  very  < 

satisfactory    covers    for    newly    trans-     Outdoor  Seedling  bed.       Its 


planted  seedlings.  They  are  light,  easily 
packed  away,  and  provide  ventilation 
for  the  plants. 


location  in  the  spring 
should  be  on  a  well- 
drained  soil  and  in  a 

sunny  and  sheltered  place.  The  soil  should  be  put  in 
good  condition  by  cultivation  and  by  the  addition  of 
sand,  lime,  humus,  and  manure,  as  may  be  needed. 

Such  a  bed  is  also  of  special  value  for  starting  seedlings 
of  autumn  crops  of  lettuce,  beets,  cabbages,  and  kale. 
During  the  late  summer,  seeds  planted  directly  in  the 
garden  often  fail  to  germinate  well.  In  a  seed  bed, 
special  care  in  preparing  the  soil,  watering  the  seedlings, 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds 


and  protecting  them 
from  hot  sunlight  pro- 
vides vigorous  young 
plants  for  transplanting. 
Time  required  to 
grow  seedlings  for 
transplanting.  To  be 
most  successful  in  grow- 
ing seedlings  for  trans- 
planting, the  gardener 
must  have  plants  of 
suitable  size  and  hardi- 
ness ready  for  planting 
at  the  proper  time.  The 
length  of  time  required 
to  bring  plants  to  this 
condition  differs  for  the 
various  kinds  of  vegeta- 
bles and  for  the  differ- 
ent varieties  of  each 
kind.  It  also  varies  for 
a  single  variety  according  to  the  differences  in  the  prep- 
aration and  management  of  the  window  boxes,  hotbeds, 
cold  frames,  or  seed  beds.  The  beginner  can  safely 
start  the  germination  of  seeds  of  cabbages,  lettuce,  and 
tomatoes  from  5  to  6  weeks  before  the  time  for  trans- 
planting to  the  garden.  Peppers  and  eggplants  are  con- 
siderably slower  in  growth  and  require  a  longer  time. 
Corn,  beans,  squashes,  and  melons  grow  very  quickly 
if  proper  conditions  are  supplied ;  2  or  3  weeks  may  be 
sufficient  for  these. 


FIG.  117.  An  outdoor  seedbed.  Such  a 
seedbed  is  especially  useful  for  starting 
seedlings  for  the  autumn  crops. 


196  Gardening 

With  experience,  one  will  learn  how  to  handle  the 
various  seedlings  under  the  local  conditions  of  weather 
and  the  method  of  treatment  used.  It  is  a  good  plan 
for  the  beginner  to  make  a  record  of  the  dates  of  plant- 
ing seed  and  transplanting,  and  of  the  results  obtained 
in  growing  seedlings  of  the  different  varieties  for  trans- 
planting. This  will  serve  as  a  guide  in  the  following 
seasons. 

Questions 

Describe  the  germination  of  a  seed.  What  are  the  three  main 
requirements  for  germination?  Why  does  too  much  water  in 
the  soil  hinder  germination?  Discuss  the  temperature  require- 
ments of  different  seeds  for  germination.  Describe  the  proper 
method  of  laying  out  and  planting  a  row  of  seed. 

How  deep  should  the  seeds  of  corn,  beans,  and  peas  be  planted, 
usually?  seeds  of  beets,  cucumbers,  squashes,  and  melons? 
carrots,  radishes,  lettuce,  and  parsnip?  Name  some  conditions 
that  make  it  advisable  to  plant  seeds  deeper  or  shallower.  When 
is  it  of  special  value  to  firm  the  soil?  Why?  When  should  the 
soil  not  be  firmed  ?  Why  is  it  best  not  to  water  seeds  immediately 
after  planting  ? 

Describe  the  transplanting  method  of  starting  crops.  With 
what  kinds  of  crops  is  this  method  used? 

What  is  the  best  soil  for  a  seed  flat?  Why  should  a  very 
rich  soil  not  be  used?  What  kind  of  soil  should  be  used  in  the 
flats  to  which  seedlings  are  transplanted?  How  should  it  be 
prepared?  How  should  the  seeds  be  planted  in  a  flat? 

How  may  seedlings  of  the  tomato  and  cabbage  be  grown  in 
the  home? 

What  is  a  hotbed  ?  Where  should  a  hotbed  be  located  ?  What 
is  a  pit  hotbed?  How  is  it  made?  When  should  the  seeds  or 
seedlings  be  placed  in  the  hotbed  ?  What  is  a  surface  hotbed  and 
how  is  it  made?  How  should  a  hotbed  be  watered?  How  is  it 
ventilated?  What  is  a  cold  frame?  What  are  its  principal 
uses? 


How  to  Grow  Plants  from  Seeds  197 

What  is  the  advantage  of  transplanting  seedlings  at  least  once  ? 
What  is  the  " dirt-band"  method?  How  does  it  help  in  trans- 
planting ?  What  is  meant  by  "  hardening  "  seedlings  ?  Why  is 
it  necessary?  What  points  need  to  be  especially  watched  in 
transplanting  seedlings  to  the  garden  ?  Why  do  plants  often  need 
protection  after  transplanting  ?  When  is  the  best  time  to  reset 
plants  ?  Why  are  some  of  the  leaves  often  removed  when  a  plant 
is  reset  ? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  an  outdoor  seed  bed  ? 


Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1.  To  observe  the  germination  of  seeds.      Plant  seeds  of  pea, 
bean;  squash,  and  corn  in  flats,  boxes,  or  pots.     As  soon  as  ger- 
mination is  noticed,  dig  up  seedlings  of  each  kind  and  study  the 
various  stages  of  germination.     How  does  the  first  root  get  out  of 
the  seed  coat?    How  do  the  stem  and  leaves  get  out?    What 
does  the  root  do  if  it  emerges  from  the  upper  side  of  the  seed  as 
planted?    What  becomes  of  the  part  or  parts  containing  stored 
food  ?    How  do  the  stem  and  first  leaves  force  their  way  through 
the  soil  to  the  air  above  ?     Does  the  position  of  the  seed  in  the  soil 
increase  or  retard  germination  in  any  way  ? 

2.  To  show  the  effect  of  too  little  water  on  germination.     Fill  two 
flats  or  pots  with  garden  soil.     In  each  flat  or  pot  plant  seeds  of 
corn,  squash,  radish,  cabbage,  bean,  and  tomato.     Place  both  in  a 
warm  room  or  in  a  hotbed.     Keep  only  one  watered.     In  which 
do  the  seeds  germinate  better  ?     Why  ? 

3.  To  show  the  effect  of  too  much  water  on  germination.     Select 
two  earthen  flowerpots  of  the  same  size ;  or  if  these  are  not  avail- 
able use  tin  cans,  preferably  at  least  6  inches  in  diameter.    If  pots 
are  used,  plug  the  opening  in  the  bottom  of  one  with  a  cork  stop- 
per;  if  tin  cans  are  used,  leave  one  intact,  but   make   several 
holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  other  one.     Fill  with  garden  soil  and 
plant  in  each  an  equal  number  of  seeds  of  beans  or  corn. 

Keep  both  together  in  a  warm  room.  Add  the  same  amounts 
of  water  to  each  every  day,  so  that  one  is  kept  well  watered  and 
well  drained  and  the  other  is  kept  with  free  water  standing  at  the 
top.  In  which  does  germination  take  place  better? 


198  Gardening 

After  two  weeks  dig  up  the  seeds  in  the  one  that  lacked  drainage 
and  note  their  condition.  What  does  this  show  about  the  amount 
of  water  that  should  be  in  soils  in  which  seeds  are  germinating? 

4.  To  show  the  influence  of  temperature  on  germination.     Prepare 
and  plant  two  flats  as  directed  in  2,  above.     Place  one  flat  in  a 
warm  room,  and  place  the  other  out  of  doors  or  in  a  cool  room. 
Give  the  same  amount  of  water  to  each.     Observe  and  explain 
differences  in  germination  of  the  same  kind  of  seeds  in  the  two 
flats.     Note  if  the  seeds  of  the  cool-season  crops  germinate  to 
any  degree  in  the  flat  kept  out  of  doors. 

5.  To  show  the  importance  of  careful  transplantation.    Watch 
a  number  of  different  gardeners  or  school-garden  pupils  when  they 
are  transplanting.     Carefully  note  the  methods  of  each.     Then 
if  you  can,  visit  the  same  gardens  in  a  few  days  and  see  how  the 
plants  transplanted  by  one  person  compare  with  those  transplanted 
by  another.     Recall  the  methods  of  each  gardener,  and  then  try 
to  determine  from  what  you  have  observed  why  some  of  the 
plants  grew  better  than  others. 


CHAPTER    THIRTEEN 

THE   CARE   OF   GROWING    CROPS 

It  is  not  enough  merely  to  plough  and  hoe,  and  plant 
and  sow ;  you  must  see  that  everything  is  done  in  proper 
time  and  order. 

Old  Farmer's  Almanac 

IN  caring  for  the  growing  crops,  as  in  all  garden  opera- 
tions, much  depends  on  doing  the  right  thing  at  the 
right  time.  In  general,  the  best  time  for  giving  at- 
tention to  a  crop  is  before  the  need  for  doing  a  particular 
thing  becomes  apparent.  Crops  should  be  cultivated, 
weeded,  and  watered  before  they  begin  to  suffer  for  the 
lack  of  such  care. 

Each  crop  grown  requires  a  certain  special  treatment 
because  of  its  own  peculiar  habits  of  growth,  but  these 
can  best  be  treated  in  discussing  the  various  crops. 
Most  crops  also  need  protection  from  insect  and  fungous 
pests,  and  the  most  important  of  these  will  be  discussed 
in  special  chapters.  However,  there  are  certain  prin- 
ciples which  generally  apply  in  caring  for  all  crops,  and 
these  will  be  treated  in  this  chapter.  The  principal 
divisions  of  the  work  of  caring  for  vegetable  crops  are 
(i)  cultivation  or  stirring  of  the  soil  between  the  grow- 
ing plants,  (2)  weeding,  (3)  thinning  and  replanting, 
and  (4)  irrigation. 

Cultivation  of  the  soil.  Cultivating  the  soil  destroys 
weeds,  which  if  left  to  grow  soon  cover  the  ground  and 
choke  even  the  most  vigorous  of  the  vegetable  crops. 
It  breaks  up  the  crust  which  forms  on  the  surface  of  the 
soil  and  allows  air  to  enter  the  soil  and  reach  the  roots, 
and  it  keeps  the  water  in  the  soil  by  making  a  dry,  loose 
surface  mulch.  Constant  cultivation  is  so  important  in 

199 


200 


Gardening 


Purdue  Univ.  Agric.  Expt.  Sta. 

FIG.  1 1 8.  A  garden  in  need  of  cultivation.  The  surface  crust  should  be 
broken  to  admit  air  more  uniformly  to  the  roots  and  to  conserve  the  soil  moisture. 

preserving  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  for  plants  that  we 
should  thoroughly  understand  how  a  surface  layer  of 
fine,  loose  soil  keeps  the  water  from  escaping  into  the  air. 

How  a  dust  mulch  prevents  loss  of  water  from  soil. 
The  water  in  the  soil  can  travel  in  any  direction  by  pass- 
ing from  particle  to  particle,  just  as  oil  travels  up  the 
wick  of  a  lamp  by  passing  from  thread  to  thread.  It 
moves  from  the  places  where  it  is  most  abundant  to  the 
places  where  there  is  less  of  it ;  hence,  when  the  surface 
layers  of  the  soil  dry  out,  the  water  in  the  damper  soil 
below  creeps  up  toward  the  surface.  In  this  way  the 
water  in  a  soil  is  brought  to  the  surface  and  evaporated 
into  the  air. 

But  if  the  surface  layer  of  the  soil  is  cultivated,  it  is 
broken  loose  from  the  soil  below.  Then  the  water 
finds  no  direct  path  from  particle  to  particle  upward ; 
the  connection  of  the  upper  layer  with  the  soil  below  is 
broken.  Hence  the  surface  soil  soon  dries  out  because  its 


The  Care  of  Growing  Crops  201 

supply  of  water  from  below  is  cut  off.  This  dry  surface 
layer  then  covers  the  soil  below  like  a  heavy  cloth 
spread  on  the  ground. 

Beneath  a  good  surface  mulch  of  dry  soil  the  earth 
is  moist,  even  after  long  periods  of  dry  weather ;  and 
when  a  soil  in  good  physical  condition  (see  page  58)  is 
kept  moist  in  this  way  it  remains  loose  so  that  the  roots 
can  easily  penetrate  it.  Thus  the  mulch  not  only  saves 
the  water  for  the  plants,  but  it  keeps  the  soil  in  good 
physical  condition  for  the  roots. 

When  to  cultivate.  Rainfall  and  surface  irrigation 
destroy  a  surface  mulch.  Hence  the  garden  should  be 
cultivated  soon  after  each  rain  or  irrigation.  If  one 
waits  several  days,  a  dry  crust  will  form  and  the  surface 
will  become  cracked  and  broken  up  into  coarse  lumps. 
Much  water  is  lost  in  this  way  ;  also  such  a  soil  is  in  poor 
condition  for  the  roots. 

Shallow  cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  seed- 
lings are  above  the  ground,  and  if  seeds  are  slow  in 
germinating,  as  are  parsnips  and  carrots,  the  soil  should 
be  stirred  before  the  plants  are  up.  Crops  need  more 
careful  and  more  frequent  cultivation  while  they  are 
young  than  they  do  later,  for  the  roots  are  nearer  the 
surface  and  the  soil  is  less  shaded ;  hence  the  roots  are 
more  exposed  to  the  drying  effects  of  the  sun  and  air. 

In  cultivating  young  crops,  work  the  rake  or  tool 
used  in  such  a  way  that  fine  loose  dirt  is  thrown  about 
the  base  of  seedlings  or  even  over  seedlings  that  are  not 
yet  above  ground.  Cultivate  after  each  rain  as  soon  as 
the  soil  is  dry  enough  not  to  stick  to  the  tools.  Do  not 
draw  the  cultivating  tools  so  close  to  plants  that  the  main 


2O2  Gardening 

root  is  touched.  Fleshy  roots  like  beets  and  carrots, 
especially,  may  be  injured  in  this  way. 

Tools  for  cultivating.  In  cultivating  the  small  garden, 
short-handled  weeders  with  claw-like  teeth,  midget  and 
longer-handled  prong  cultivators,  hoes,  and  garden 
rakes  may  be  used.  For  the  larger  garden  a  wheel  hoe 
with  various  cultivator  attachments  is  an  excellent  tool. 
In  still  larger  gardens  horse-drawn  or  tractor  cultivators 
may  be  used. 

All  these  tools  should  be  used  so  as  to  stir  and  break 
up  the  surface  of  the  soil.  A  depth  of  i  inch  is  usually 
enough  to  cultivate ;  certainly  one  should  seldom  go 
as  deep  as  2  inches.  Such  shallow  tillage  does  little  injury 
to  the  roots  of  growing  crops.  It  is  important  always  to 
cultivate  at  about  the  same  level,  for  the  feeding  roots 
of  most  crops  reach  near  the  surface  and  deep  tillage 
(to  a  depth  of  3  inches  or  more)  after  shallow  tillage  may 
destroy  many  roots  and  thereby  check  the  growth  of  the 
plants. 

The  best  tool  for  surface  tillage  is  a  garden  rake. 
No  other  hand  tool  can  do  the  work  as  effectively  unless 
the  soil  becomes  much  compacted ;  then  the  hoe  or  the 
Norcross  weeder  is  better.  When  the  crops  are  growing 
in  rows  that  are  too  close  together  to  permit  the  use  of 
an  ordinary  garden  rake,  a  small  steel  rake,  4  or  6  inches 
wide,  with  numerous  short  teeth,  is  most  useful.  If  it  is 
fitted  with  a  long  handle,  the  work  can  be  done  rapidly 
and  without  much  stooping.  Shallow  surface  cultivation 
is  of  course  very  necessary  in  periods  of  dry  weather, 
in  order  most  fully  to  check  the  loss  of  water  from  the 
soil. 


The  Care  of  Growing  Crops 


203 


Van  Etrie  Kilpatrick 

FIG.  119.     "Thorough  and  clean  culture  is  the  watchword  of  the  successful 
gardener."     Old  Farmer's  Almanac 

Weeding.  If  a  garden  is  properly  tilled  for  maintain- 
ing the  surface  mulch,  weeds  never  get  large  enough  to 
become  a  menace,  at  least  between  the  rows.  Weeding, 
therefore,  becomes  simply  the  task  of  pulling  by  hand 
the  weeds  that  appear  close  to  the  growing  plants.  Such 
weeds  should  be  pulled  when  they  are  small,  before  they 
crowd  and  shade  the  growing  plants  and  rob  them  of  water 
and  food  materials.  If  for  any  reason  the  weeds  do  be- 
come large,  special  care  should  be  taken  in  removing  them 
so  that  the  roots  of  the  growing  crops  are  not  injured. 
Weeds  of  large  size  may  be  cut  off  just  below  the  surface. 

The  roots  of  a  weed  (or  of  a  vegetable  that  stands 
close  beside  other  plants  of  the  crop)  are  often  much  en- 
tangled with  the  roots  of  a  plant  that  is  near  it,  and  by 


204 


Gardening 


FIG.  1 20.     When  the  soil  is  dry,  the  row  should  be  watered  before  thinning. 

careless  weeding  or  thinning,  the  roots  of  the  plant  may 
be  badly  broken  and  loosened  in  the  soil,  so  that  the  plant 
will  have  a  great  part  of  its  water  supply  cut  off.  Hence 
weeding  is  best  done  at  a  time  when  the  soil  is  moist,  or 
even  quite  wet ;  and  it  is  best  to  do  the  weeding  on  cool 
days  or  in  the  late  afternoon,  especially  if  the  crops  have 
become  tender  and  weak  through  much  shading  by  weeds. 
If  such  precautions  are  not  taken,  crops  may  be  severely 
checked  in  their  growth.  It  is  the  using  of  common 
sense  in  such  matters  that  makes  one  person  a  more 
successful  gardener  than  another. 

Thinning.  Crops  that  are  grown  from  seed  sown  in 
the  garden  often  need  thinning.  The  roots  of  individual 
plants  need  room  to  spread  and  feed  in  the  soil,  and  the 
leaves  need  plenty  of  room  in  the  air.  Crowded  plants 
always  grow  poorly.  Thinning  should  be  done  early, 
so  that  the  young  plants  may  be  properly  spaced  from  the 


The  Care  of  Growing  Crops 


205 


first.  The  same  sort  of  care  that  is  exercised  in  weeding 
should  be  employed  in  the  thinning. 

Plan  to  give  room  according  to  the  particular  need  of 
the  plant.  Radishes  require  less  room  than  salsify 
and  parsnips :  tomatoes  require  more  room ;  corn  and 
the  various  vine  crops  still  more. 

The  thinning  of  some  crops,  as  beets  and  carrots, 
may  be  delayed  until  some  of  the  plants  are  large 
enough  to  be  used  as  food.  In  thinning  beets  for  use 
as  greens,  it  is  often  best  to  cut  off  the  roots  rather 


FIGS.  121  and  122.  Thinning  corn  and  onions.  It  is  well  to  plant  thickly 
because  in  this  way  a  full  stand  is  insured ;  but  the  beginner  often  makes  the  mis- 
take of  allowing  too  many  plants  to  remain  in  the  row. 


206 


Gardening 


FIG.  123.  Watering  in  the  wrong  way  and  at  the  wrong  time.  The  water  is 
being  sprayed  over  the  plants  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  In  consequence  much 
of  it  will  evaporate  without  reaching  the  roots  of  the  plant.  The  soil  and  not 
the  plants  should  be  watered,  and  this  should  be  done  later  in  the  afternoon  or 
on  a  cloudy  day. 

than  to  pull  them,  to  avoid  loosening  the  plants  left 
standing. 

Replanting.  Seed  may  germinate  poorly,  or  seedlings 
may  die  from  such  causes  as  improper  care,  or  the  at- 
tacks of  animals  and  insect  or  fungous  pests.  This  gives 
a  poor  stand.  The  vacant  areas  in  the  rows  should  be 
filled  by  replanting  with  seeds  or  with  young  plants 
of  the  same  or  even  of  some  other  crop.  In  this  way 
every  bit  of  the  garden  may  be  kept  occupied.  In  re- 
planting, it  is  often  advisable  to  use  a  quick-growing 
variety  that  will  mature  not  far  behind  the  first  plant- 
ing ;  but  if  the  growing  season  admits  of  it,  various  other 
vegetables  may  be  planted  as  companion  or  follow 
crops. 


The  Care  of  Growing  Crops 


207 


Irrigation.  In  humid  regions  the  natural  rainfall  is 
such  that  there  is  seldom  a  complete  failure  of  all  crops. 
In  arid  regions  the  rainfall  is  not  sufficient  to  support 
any  crop,  and  the  necessary  water  must  be  supplied 
through  some  sort  of  irrigation.  But  provision  for  irri- 
gation is  also  highly  desirable  in  humid  regions,  for  here 
it  does  not  always  rain  when  the  crops  need  water. 
Periods  of  drought  occur  at  some  time  nearly  every  year, 
during  which  time  the  plants  suffer,  their  rapid  growth 
is  checked,  their  qualities  of  tenderness  and  good  flavor 
are  greatly  impaired,  or  pos- 
sibly they  may  fail  com- 
pletely to  produce  a  crop. 
Therefore  it  pays  the  gar- 
dener to  have  ready  some 
means  of  supplying  water 
whenever  it  may  be  needed. 

For  watering  flats,  hot- 
beds, and  cold  frames,  and 
for  watering  at  time  of  trans- 
planting, the  sprinkling  can 
is  sufficient.  But  only  a 
very  small  garden  can  be 
watered  in  this  way. 

A  hose  fitted  with  a  spray 
nozzle  and  connected  with 
a  city  water  supply,  a  tank, 
or  a  force  pump  gives  excel- 
lent results.  Various  sorts 

of    lawn    Sprinklers,    "water     FIG.  124-    The  right  way  to  water. 
.  The  water  is  directed  to  the  soil  about 

witches,    and  ring  or  shower    the  roots  of  the  plants. 


208  Gardening 


FIG.  125.  Usually  when  irrigation  is  spoken  of  we  think  of  the  dry  region  of 
the  West,  but  this  photograph  shows  the  Skinner  system  of  overhead  irrigation 
in  action  on  a  New  Jersey  truck  farm.  With  a  system  of  this  sort  the  gardener 
has  no  fear  of  dry  weather. 

sprinklers  may  be  attached  to  distribute  the  water  in  a 
manner  like  rain. 

When  there  is  a  supply  of  water  under  pressure,  the 
overhead  or  Skinner  system  of  irrigation  is  well  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  the  home  garden.  This  system  con- 
sists of  galvanized  iron  pipe  into  which  holes  are  drilled 
and  fitted  with  fine  brass  nozzles.  One  end  of  the  pipe 
is  closed ;  the  other  is  connected  with  the  water  supply. 
When  in  action,  the  water  spurts  from  each  nozzle  in  a 
fine  stream  to  a  considerable  distance.  The  pipe  can  be 
turned  with  the  row  of  nozzles  at  various  angles  until 
areas  on  both  sides  of  the  pipe  are  well  watered.  A 
portable  support  and  hose  connection  will  enable  one  to 
shift  the  pipe  as  needed,  or  several  lengths  of  pipe 
sufficient  to  cover  the  entire  garden  may  be  attached  to 
rather  permanent  supports. 


The  Care  of  Growing  Crops  209 

If  the  garden  slopes  somewhat,  shallow  trenches 
may  be  made  between  the  rows  of  plants  with  a  hoe,  and 
then  water  may  be  allowed  to  run  along  these  trenches 
as  needed.  In  arid  regions  this  method  of  irrigation  is 
in  very  general  use. 

Whatever  method  of  irrigation  is  employed,  it  is 
best  to  soak  the  garden  thoroughly  at  intervals  of  several 
days  rather  than  to  water  slightly  at  rather  frequent 
intervals.  As  soon  after  irrigation  as  the  soil  is  suffi- 
ciently dry,  go  over  the  garden  with  a  rake,  making  a 
fine  surface  mulch. 

In  watering  crops  with  hose  or  sprinkling  can,  avoid 
applying  heavy  and  continued  streams  that  wash  the  soil 
away  from  roots,  exposing  them  to  the  air.  Soil  may  be 
packed  and  puddled  also  by  careless  watering.  Leafy 
crops  like  lettuce  often  decay  and  rot  if  the  head  is  rilled 
with  water. 

Questions 

In  what  three  ways  does  surface  cultivation  benefit  growing 
crops?  What  is  a  dust  mulch?  How  does  it  prevent  loss  of 
water  from  the  soil  ?  Why  is  it  necessary  to  cultivate  soon  after 
each  rain  ?  How  should  young  crops  be  cultivated  ?  Name  the 
best  tools  for  cultivating  a  small  garden. 

Why  is  it  best  to  pull  weeds  when  they  are  small  ?  When  is  the 
best  time  to  do  weeding?  Why  is  this  the  best  time?  Why  do 
crops  need  thinning  ?  How  is  it  best  done  ?  Why  should  vacant 
places  in  the  rows  be  replanted  ?  When  is  the  watering  of  gardens 
necessary?  Describe  the  proper  methods  of  supplying  water. 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

i.  To  show  that  a  dust  mulch  retains  water.  Procure  two  deep 
water-tight  tin  cans  of  the  same  size.  Fill  both  with  clay  soil, 
and  water  each  thoroughly.  Let  stand  until  the  soil  can  be  worked. 


210  Gardening 

Then  make  a  good  mulch  on  the  surface  of  one,  leaving  the  other 
as  it  is.  Now  weigh  each  accurately,  recording  the  weights. 
After  about  a  week  weigh  each  again,  and  compare  the  weights 
with  first  weighing.  Which  has  lost  more  in  weight  ?  Why  ? 

2.  To  determine  the  best  time  for  pulling  large  weeds.    Two  boys 
started  a  garden  together  in  the  spring.     They  kept  it  in  good 
condition,  but  went  to  the  seashore  during  July.     When  they 
returned,  they  found  many  large  weeds  shading  and  crowding  the 
vegetables.     One  boy  said:    "Let's  take  out  the  weeds  right 
away.    They're  shading  the  vegetables  and  taking  the  water 
from  them."     "No,"  said  the  other,  "that  will  not  do  at  all. 
The  weather's  hot  and  dry,  and  if  we  pull  the  weeds  now  we'll 
break  the  roots  of  the  vegetables  all  to  pieces  and  they'll   wilt 
for  lack  of  water.     We  must  wait  till  it  rains."     They    consulted 
a  gardener,  who  advised  them  to  cut  the  weeds  off  and  cultivate 
with  a  hoe  but  not  to  pull  them  during  dry  weather.     Who  do 
you  think  was  right  ? 

Plant  three  hills  of  bush  beans  with  four  plants  close  together  in 
each  hill.  After  they  are  well  grown,  try  thinning  to  one  plant  in  a 
hill  by  each  of  the  above  methods,  studying  the  results  in  each  case. 

3.  To  show  the  effects   of  thinning.     When   you   plant   your 
radishes,  plant  3  feet  of  the  row  very  thickly,  and  do  not  thin. 
Plant  and  thin  the  rest  of  the  row  according  to  directions.     When 
the  radishes  are  ready  to  gather,  pull  up  the  crowded  plants  and 
also  a  yard  of  the  row  that  has  been  thinned.     Count  the  number 
of  edible  radishes  in  each  lot  and  compare.     From  this  experiment, 
would  you  say  that  thick  planting  gives  greater  or  less  yield  to 
a  given  space  ?     Observe  the  gardens  in  your  neighborhood  and 
determine  whether  too  wide  spacing  or  crowding  of  vegetables  is 
the  more  common. 


CHAPTER  FOURTEEN 

ROOT  CROPS  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Say  what  you  will  of  roots  and  the  root  crop,  I  like  to 
have  a  good  lot  of  them  for  winter  use.  I  would  not  do 
without  them  for  twice  their  cost. 

Old  Farmer's  Almanac 

THE  radish,  turnip,  rutabaga,  beet,  carrot,  parsnip, 
and  salsify  are  the  principal  root  crops  commonly  grown 
in  vegetable  gardens.  While  these  plants  thrive  best  in 
temperate  regions,  they  are  all  grown  successfully  in  our 
southern  states  during  the  cooler  months  of  winter  and 
early  spring.  The  sweet  potato  is  another  important 
root  crop,  but  it  is  not  adapted  to  the  shorter  growing 
period  of  the  more  northern  states. 

Root  crops  are  very  important  vegetables.  In  the 
first  place,  they  yield  abundantly.  There  are  400  or  500 
plants  in  a  row  of  carrots  or  beets  100  feet  long,  and  these 
crops  often  yield  at  the  rate  of  600  bushels  to  the  acre. 
The  yield  is  high  also  in  the  other  root  crops. 

In  the  second  place,  root  crops,  taken  together,  are  avail- 
able for  use  during  practically  the  whole  year.  Radishes 
are  the  first  vegetable  ready  for  the  table  from  seed 
planted  in  the  spring.  Beets  and  carrots  are  long-season 
crops,  but  the  young  and  partially  grown  roots  may  be 
pulled  for  use  early,  thus  much  extending  the  period 
of  harvest  for  the  crop.  Radishes  and  turnips  can  be 
grown  in  the  fall  as  well  as  in  the  spring,  and  in  the 
autumn  the  surplus  of  all  root  crops  may  be  stored 
for  winter  consumption.  Parsnips  and  salsify  can  be 
dug  for  use,  during  autumn  and  spring,  and  also  dur- 
ing winter  when  the  ground  is  not  frozen.  These  root 
crops  have  a  special  value  because  they  supply  vege- 

211 


212  Gardening 

tables  to  the  table  in  winter  when  other  fresh  foods 
are  scarce. 

A  good  soil  needed  for  root  crops.  As  a  rule,  the 
root  crops  are  "  light  feeders."  This  is  because  the  root 
system  is  not  extensive.  The  main  root  grows  down 
rather  deeply  but  becomes  thick  and  fleshy,  while  the 
smaller,  fibrous,  feeding  rootlets  are  not  so  numerous 
and  so  widely  spreading  as  in  many  other  crops. 

Root  crops,  therefore,  thrive  best  in  a  mellow  soil  in 
which  the  roots  can  go  deep.  A  rich  and  well- watered 
loam  or  a  sandy  soil  that  contains  considerable  humus 
and  well-rotted  manure  is  best  for  them.  On  heavy  and 
compact  soils  the  roots  of  these  crops  are  often  small, 
ill-shaped,  knotty,  and  more  or  less  branched.  They 
often  fail  on  "  raw  "  or  previously  uncultivated  soils, 
but  with  good  tillage  and  the  addition  of  humus  and 
manure  such  soils  become  suited  to  all  the  root  crops. 

Root  crops  maturing  during  periods  of  hot,  dry  weather 
are  likely  to  be  woody  and  of  poor  flavor.  This  can  be 
prevented  in  large  degree  by  supplying  an  abundance  of 
water. 

Thinning  root  crops.  The  beginner  often  fails  to  thin 
root  crops  sufficiently.  The  tops  of  these  plants  as  a  rule 
are  small  compared  to  the  underground  parts,  and  they 
are  likely  to  be  left  so  thick  that  the  plants  do  not  have 
room  to  mature  properly. 

In  thinning  these  crops  it  is  best  to  allow  a  distance 
between  plants  twice  the  diameter  of  a  mature  root. 
Thus  radishes,  which  are  i  inch  in  diameter  when  mature, 
should  stand  2  inches  apart,  and  turnips,  which  are  3 
inches  in  diameter,  should  stand  6  inches  apart.  If  there 


Root  Crops  and  How  to  Grow  Them      213 


is  plenty  of  space,  twice 
this  distance  may  well 
be  allowed;  but  in  a 
small  garden  the  plants 
should  be  grown  as  close 
together  as  practicable. 

RADISHES 

There  are  spring, 
summer,  and  winter 
varieties  of  radishes. 
The  spring  sorts  are 
very  easy  to  grow,  but 
one  is  less  certain  of 
success  with  the  sum- 
mer and  winter  varie- 
ties. Rich  soil,  abun- 
dance of  water,  and  cool 
weather  favor  rapid 

growth,     which      makes      the  soil  first,  making  it  easier  for  the  other 

the  roots  crisp,  tender,     sfds  to  Push  UP>  and  they  are  soon  out  of 

the  way. 

and   juicy.     As    spring 

and  summer  radishes  remain  in  good  condition  for  eat- 
ing only  a  short  time  they  are  often  overplanted. 

Spring  varieties.  The  planting  of  spring  radishes 
may  begin  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked.  Some  vari- 
eties are  ready  for  use  in  20  days  from  planting.  Plant 
the  seeds  rather  thickly,  \  inch  deep,  in  rows  10  inches 
apart  Begin  to  pull  the  largest  roots  as  soon  as  they 
are  large  enough  for  use. 


FIG.  126.  Radishes  grown  as  a  com- 
panion crop  with  onions.  When  planted 
with  another  crop,  radishes  usually  break 


214  Gardening 

Spring  radishes  are  best  when  about  two- thirds  grown. 
They  should  be  gathered  promptly,  as  they  soon  become 
hollow,  pithy,  dry,  and  of  strong  flavor.  The  roots  of 
some  sorts  are  well  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  the 
leaf  growth  is  rather  sparse.  The  beginner  is  likely 
to  leave  these  plants  in  the  soil  too  long.  The  size  may 
be  determined  by  carefully  feeling  in  the  soil  about  the 
root  of  a  plant  with  the  finger. 

During  the  winter  months  the  spring  varieties  may  be 
forced  in  hotbeds  throughout  zones  F  and  G,  or  in  cold 
frames  in  zone  E,  and  they  may  be  grown  in  the  open  in 
zones  B,  C,  and  D.  (For  map  of  zones,  see  page  158.) 

The  Scarlet  Globe  (globe-shaped),  French  Breakfast 
(oval  or  olive-shaped) ,  and  the  White  Icicle  (long,  finger- 
shaped)  are  excellent  standard  sorts  to  be  recommended 
for  any  section  of  the  United  States. 

Summer  varieties.  Summer  radishes  are  somewhat 
resistant  to  the  stronger  sunlight,  warmer  temperatures, 
and  drier  conditions  of  summer  months.  The  seed  is 
planted  in  the  early  or  late  spring,  and  the  roots  are 
ready  for  use  in  about  50  days.  Success  with  these 
varieties  depends  on  supplying  the  conditions  that  favor 
rapid  growth.  Rich  soil,  abundance  of  water,  and 
partial  shade  (the  latter  may  sometimes  be  supplied  by  a 
screen  of  thin  cloth  or  laths)  are  necessary  where  the 
summers  are  rather  warm. 

Chartier  and  White  Strasburg  are  considered  the  best  of 
the  summer  radishes. 

Winter  varieties.  Winter  radishes  require  about  75 
days  of  rapid  growth  to  mature  roots  of  large  size.  The 
seed  is  therefore  planted  during  the  summer  (in  July  in 


Root  Crops  and  How  to  Grow  Them      215 

the  more  northern  states  of  zone  G,  about  August  i  in 
zone  E,  and  September  i  in  zone  C) .  The  roots  can  thus 
mature  in  the  cool  weather  of  autumn.  Before  the  heavy 
frosts  occur,  the  roots  should  be  pulled  and  placed  in  soil 
or  sand  and  stored  in  a  basement  or  a  storage  cellar. 

The  Celestial  (or  White  Chinese),  the  Long  Black 
Spanish  (especially  good  for  storage),  and  the  Sakura- 
jima  (or  Mammoth  Japan)  are  standard  varieties. 

TURNIPS 

The  turnip  is  essentially  a  cool-season  crop.  The 
different  varieties  are  ready  for  use  in  from  45  to  70  days, 
and  the  earliest  sorts  are  usually  those  grown  as  spring 
crops.  There  are  about  20  varieties  in  cultivation.  Of 
these,  Early  Purple  Top  Milan,  maturing  in  about  45 
days,  and  White  Globe,  maturing  in  about  70  days,  are 
standard  varieties  suitable  to  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United, 
States. 

Growing  turnips  as  a  spring  crop.  In  many  localities 
spring  turnips  are  not  a  success  because  hot  weather 
comes  before  they  are  large  enough  for  use,  and  they  soon 
become  woody  and  bitter.  But  in  localities  having 
cool  and  moist  summers,  crops  maturing  during  summer 
are  often  of  fine  quality.  For  these  crops  lay  out  the 
rows  1 2  inches  apart  and  sow  seed  in  the  furrows  J  inch 
deep. 

The  beginner  should  attempt  to  grow  only  the  very 
earliest  sorts  as  a  spring  crop.  Two  sowings,  each  a  row 
15  feet  in  length,  will  probably  be  sufficient  for  the  family 
needs. 


2l6 


Gardening 


FIG.  127.     Pulling  young  beets.     The  beets  are  large  enough  for  use  and  the 
leaves  are  still  tender. 

The  autumn  crop.  Seed  for  the  autumn  crop  is  sown 
during  July  and  August  in  the  northern  states  and  later  in 
the  South  (about  15  days  later  for  each  planting  zone). 

In  the  small  garden  where  space  is  limited,  seed  may 
be  sown  among  corn  to  mature  as  a  follow  crop.  First, 
make  a  finely  pulverized  seed  bed  by  thorough  raking. 
Then  sow  the  seeds  broadcast  and  lightly  rake  them  in 
or  plant  them  in  rows  as  in  the  spring.  Supply  water  if 
there  is  scant  fall  of  rain.  Cut  and  remove  the  corn- 
stalks as  the  ears  are  harvested. 

Turnips  are  not  injured  by  mild  frosts,  but  the.  roots 
should  be  harvested  and  properly  stored  before  they  be- 
come frozen.  In  many  sections  of  the  southern  states, 
from  Florida  to  California,  turnips  can  be  grown  in  the 
open  during  the  winter  so  that  the  roots  are  maturing 
from  October  until  April. 


Root  Crops  and  How  to  Grow  Them      217 

RUTABAGAS 

Rutabagas  or  "  Swedes  "  are  grown  much  the  same  as 
fall  crops  of  turnips,  but  as  they  require  about  90  days 
to  reach  maturity,  the  seed  should  be  planted  three  or 
four  weeks  earlier  in  summer.  The  best  crops  are  pro- 
duced in  the  northern  states  in  sections  having  cool 
summers.  The  roots  are  larger  than  turnips,  and  they 
keep  somewhat  longer  in  storage  than  do  most  other 
root  crops.  Rutabagas  are  much  used  for  feeding  stock 
and  poultry,  and  they  are  excellent  food  for  human  beings. 
They  are  especially  pleasing  in  a  "  boiled  dinner."  The 
Improved  Purple  Top  and  the  Golden  Heart  are  excellent 
varieties  for  the  family  garden. 

GARDEN   BEETS 

Seed  catalogues  list  about  12  varieties  of  table  beets, 
differing  to  some  extent  in  shape,  color,  size,  and  flavor, 
as  well  as  in  the  time  required  for  proper  growth.  Al- 
though these  beets  are  to  be  classed  as  essentially  cool- 
season  crops,  they  thrive  during  summer,  especially  in 
the  more  northern  planting  zones. 

For  the  first  planting,  sow  seeds  of  an  early  variety 
like  Crosby's  Egyptian  about  the  time  of  the  latest  frost. 
This  will  furnish  tender,  partly  grown  roots  for  use  during 
summer.  Successive  plantings  of  this  variety  may  be 
made  for  later  use,  but  the  latest  date  of  planting  should 
be  about  60  days  before  the  first  killing  frost  of  autumn. 

In  the  lower  altitudes  of  the  southern  parts  of  Arizona 
and  California  and  in  the  Gulf  States,  seeds  sown  in 
September  will  yield  roots  that  may  be  left  in  the  ground 


2i8  Gardening 

all  winter  and  used  as  desired.  Proper  plantings  in  the 
northern  states  will  supply  the  table  throughout  the 
summer  and  give  roots  for  storage. 

The  seeds  are  planted  about  i  inch  deep  in  rows  that 
are  from  10  to  18  inches  apart.  What  is  ordinarily 
called  a  seed  of  the  beet  is  really  a  cluster  of  tiny  seeds, 
several  of  which  may  germinate  into  plantlets  that  crowd 
one  another.  Thinning  may  be  delayed,  however,  until 
the  young  plants  are  3  or  4  inches  tall,  when  they  may 
be  used  for  greens.  In  thinning,  care  should  be  exercised 
so  that  the  plants  left  standing  are  not  rudely  disturbed ; 
it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  cut  off  the  plants  to  be  removed 
rather  than  to  pull  them. 

Very  young  plants  removed  in  thinning  may  be  trans- 
planted to  fill  out  any  vacant  places  in  the  rows.  Plants 
may  be  left  i  inch  apart  at  the  first  thinning,  and  later 
every  other  plant  may  be  removed  for  use  as  greens, 
leaving  the  others  well  spaced  for  more  mature  develop- 
ment. 

The  Detroit  Dark  Red  is  a  variety  widely  grown  as  a 
main  and  late  crop  for  storage.  The  roots  are  globular 
and  about  3  inches  in  diameter.  About  one  third  of  the 
root  grows  above  ground,  and  this  part  is  often  tough  and 
cordy.  The  New  Century  (also  called  Rajah,  Winter 
Keeper,  Green  Top,  and  All  Season)  is  a  rather  new 
variety  that  promises  to  be  valuable  for  autumn  crops. 

CARROTS 

Carrots  have  practically  the  same  planting  dates,  heat 
requirements,  and  length  of  growing  season  as  beets. 


Root  Crops  and  How  to  Grow  Them      219 


The  varieties  called  Early 
Scarlet  Horn  and  French 
Forcing  are  excellent  for 
early  crops  but  yield  small 
roots.  The  varieties  with 
larger  roots  require  about 
80  days  for  maturity  but 
give  much  greater  yield. 
They  should  be  planted  for 
the  main  or  late  crop. 
Chantenay,  Danvers  Half 
Long.,  and  Improved  Long 
Orange  are  all  excellent. 

The  small  seeds  of  the 
carrot  should  be  planted 
about  J  inch  deep  in  rows 
about  1 2  inches  apart.  The 
seeds  germinate  slowly,  and 
it  is  often  2  weeks  before  the 
seedlings  are  well  above 
ground.  Gardeners  frequently  scatter  seeds  of  early 
radishes  with  the  seeds  of  the  carrot.  The  radishes 
mature  in  20  to  30  days  and  are  removed  about  the 
time  the  carrots  need  to  be  thinned  to  stand  about 
i  inch  apart.  Further  thinning  is  necessary;  this 
may  be  done  by  removing  the  larger  roots  as  soon 
as  they  can  be  used  for  food.  The  young  half-grown 
or  "  baby  "  carrots  are  one  of  the  garden's  best  deli- 
cacies. 

The  slow  germination  of  the  seeds  of  carrots,  and  also 
of  parsnips,  and  the  small  size  of  the  seedlings  make 


FIG.  128.     Thinning  young  carrots. 


22o  Gardening 

weeding  among  them  difficult.  It  is  often  advisable, 
therefore,  to  cultivate  the  rows  before  the  seedlings  are 
up.  This  can  be  done  by  drawing  a  fine-toothed  rake 
quickly  along  between  the  rows  in  such  a  manner  that 
a  thin  layer  of  fine  dirt  is  thrown  over  the  planted  seeds. 
This  not  only  covers  small  weeds,  but  it  keeps  a  crust 
from  forming  on  the  soil  and  makes  it  easier  for  the  little 
plants  to  push  through. 

PARSNIPS   AND   SALSIFY 

These  two  crops  are  the  most  hardy  of  the  standard 
root  vegetables.  They  are  long-period  crops,  requiring 
for  best  development  about  5  months  of  continuous 
growth.  In  the  northern  states  the  seed  is  planted  as 
soon  as  the  danger  of  frosts  is  past,  and  the  roots  are 
ready  for  use  in  late  autumn.  They  may  be  dug  and 
stored  in  the  fall,  or  they  may  be  left  in  the  ground  and 
dug  as  needed  during  the  winter  and  early  spring.  The 
roots  must  be  used  before  warm  weather  arrives,  however, 
for  then  the  flower  stalks  are  produced  and  the  roots  be- 
come worthless  as  food.  In  the  South  these  crops  are 
not  much  planted,  but  they  can  be  grown  if  the  seed  is 
planted  rather  late  in  summer. 

The  long  taproots  of  the  parsnip  and  salsify  develop 
best  in  deep,  loose  soil.  Careful  spading  to  a  depth  of 
8  or  even  10  inches  is  advisable.  It  is  sometimes  stated 
that  a  development  of  large,  well-shaped  roots  is  pro- 
moted by  making  a  hole  a  foot  deep  with  an  iron  bar, 
filling  the  hole  with  loose,  rich  earth,  and  then  planting 
the  seed  at  the  top. 


Root  Crops  and  How  to  Grow  Them      221 

Parsnip  seed  is  very  likely  to  germinate  poorly,  and  if 
more  than  one  year  old,  it  may  fail  entirely.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  sow  the  seed  rather  thickly.  The  plants  should 
be  thinned  until  they  stand  3  inches  from  one  another 
in  rows  at  least  12  inches  apart.  Salsify  is  less  rank  in 
leafy  growth  and  can  stand  slightly  closer  than  3  inches 
in  the  row. 

The  so-called  Sandwich  Island  variety  of  salsify  is 
the  only  sort  widely  cultivated  in  America.  The  Hollow 
Crown  is  the  best  variety  of  parsnip  to  plant ;  the  variety 
Early  Round  has  short,  top-shaped  roots  of  good  flavor 
but  of  such  small  yield  that  it  is  not  to  be  recommended 
for  the  home  garden. 

HORSE-RADISH 

Horse-radish  is  a  perennial  plant  that  thrives  best  in 
rich  loam  soil.  The  roots  are  grated  fine  and  used  as  a 
relish  and  condiment.  Roots  for  use  during  autumn 
and  spring  may  be  dug  as  needed ;  those  for  use  during 
winter  can  be  stored  in  sand  and  placed  in  a  cool  cellar. 

New  plants  are  always  started  from  roots  rather  than 
from  seeds.  When  digging  roots  for  table  use,  spade 
deeply,  breaking  up  the  root  clusters  and  removing  the 
largest.  New  plants  will  arise  from  the  small  roots 
left  in  the  soil.  A  few  hills  will  provide  a  family  with  a 
sufficient  supply  of  horse-radish. 

SWEET   POTATO 

Sweet  potatoes  are  grown  successfully  as  a  field  and 
garden  crop  as  far  north  as  the  upper  parts  of  zone  E. 


222  Gardening 

The  stems  trail  over  the  ground  and  take  up  so  much 
space  that  the  crop  is  not  well  suited  to  gardens  of  small 
area.  It  is,  however,  an  important  crop  in  many  of  the 
large-sized  home  vegetable  gardens  of  the  South. 

The  sweet  potato  thrives  in  a  warm,  sandy,  and  well- 
drained  soil.  Little  rainfall  is  needed  after  the  growth 
is  well  under  way ;  in  this  requirement  it  differs  from 
the  other  root  crops  we  have  discussed. 

The  sweet  potato  plant  is  propagated  by  "  slips  "  or 
"  draws."  Roots  are  placed  about  4  inches  deep  in 
sand  or  soil  in  flats,  or  directly  in  the  soil  of  hotbeds,  and 
kept  moist  and  warm.  Many  shoots  or  draws  develop 
from  an  old  root,  and  these  in  turn  develop  roots  and 
form  young  plants  suitable  for  transplanting  into  the 
garden  in  about  5  weeks. 

In  the  South  cuttings  are  taken  from  the  vines  of 
growing  plants  and  used  as  plants  for  later  plantings. 
The  crop  is  grown  in  rows,  and  the  plants  are  most  often 
set  on  low  ridges ;  but  on  sandy  soils  flat  culture  is  used. 

The  roots  should  be  dug  before  severe  frosts  occur. 
They  should  be  allowed  to  dry  in  the  sunlight  for  several 
hours,  and  then  be  placed  loosely  in  baskets  or  slatted 
crates  and  dried  or  cured  in  a  warm  room  (beside  a 
kitchen  stove  or  furnace  will  do)  for  a  period  of  about 
10  days.  They  may  then  be  stored  in  a  dry  place 
where  the  temperature  does  not  go  below  50°.  The 
roots  should  be  handled  carefully,  as  they  soon  rot  if 
bruised. 


Unless  local  conditions  are  found  to  be  unfavorable 
for  certain  of  the  root  crops,  or  the  family  tastes  reject 


Root  Crops  and  How  to  Grow  Them      223 

some  sorts,  all  those  mentioned  above  should  find  a  place 
in  the  home  vegetable  garden.  All,  excepting  horse- 
radish and  sweet  potatoes,  are  grown  from  seed  sown 
directly  in  the  garden  soil;  hence  it  is  easy  to  get  the 
crops  started. 

Gardeners  planning  to  grow  the  sweet  potato  are 
advised  to  send  for  Farm  Bulletin  395  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture;  also  to  ask  for 
literature  on  propagation,  culture,  diseases,  and  varieties 
from  their  own  state  agricultural  experiment  station. 

Questions 

Name  the  principal  root  crops  grown  in  vegetable  gardens. 
Why  are  root  crops  especially  important  vegetables?  What  is 
meant  when  it  is  said  that  root  crops  are  "light  feeders"?  In 
what  soils  do  root  crops  thrive  best?  In  what  soils  are  root 
crops  most  likely  to  fail  ?  Why  should  root  crops  be  thinned  ? 
What  is  the  general  rule  to  be  used  in  thinning  them? 

What  special  conditions  do  radishes  need  to  yield  well?  What 
conditions  are  necessary  to  grow  summer  radishes  successfully? 
When  are  winter  radishes  planted?  Can  turnips  be  grown  as  a 
summer  crop  in  localities  having  hot-weather  conditions?  How 
are  they  grown  as  an  autumn  crop?  When  is  thinning  of  beets 
often  done?  What  is  the  best  method  of  doing  this?  Describe 
a  way  to  cultivate  young  carrots  and  parsnips  without  disturbing 
them.  When  should  parsnip  seed  be  planted  in  the  Northern 
states?  Describe  the  method  of  propagating  the  sweet  potato. 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

i.  To  learn  which  root  crops  are  suited  to  your  locality  and  the 
varieties  of  each  that  should  be  grown.  Visit  as  many  gardens  or 
farms  in  your  neighborhood  as  you  can  and  note  the  kinds  of 
root  crops  grown.  Inquire  as  to  the  varieties  grown  for  home 
use  and  for  market. 


224  Gardening 

2.  To  determine  the  soil  best  suited  to  growing  root  crops.    In 
your  visits  observe  where  the  various  root  crops  are  usually  grown. 
Do  you  ever  find,  for  example,  these  crops  planted  on  a  dry  hill- 
side?   If  so,  how  do  those  growing  in  such  a  location  thrive  in 
comparison  with  those  growing  in  rich  bottom  land? 

3.  To  determine  if  you  have  planted  your  crop  at  the  right  time.. 
Keep  a  record  of  the  dates  of  planting  for  all  the  crops  grown  in 
your  garden.     Compare  these  dates  with  those  in  your  table  of 
planting  dates  and  with  the  dates  of  local  frost.     (See  Exercise  i 
on  page  163.) 

Would  planting  at  a  different  date  have  been  better  in  any  case? 


CHAPTER  FIFTEEN 

CROPS  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  LEAVES 

Who  would  be  without  celery  and  lettuce,  rhubarb  and 
spinach,  when  it  is  so  easy  to  raise  them? 

Old  Farmer's  Almanac 

ALL  leafy  crops  of  the  garden  are  used  as  food  when 
the  leaves  are  tender  and  in  good  condition.  The  plants 
are  not  left  to  reach  natural  or  full  maturity  and  pro- 
duce seed.  They  are  often  grown  in  ways  that  promote 
excessive  leafy  development,  which  may  be  somewhat 
unnatural  for  the  plant. 

Some  leafy  vegetables,  like  rhubarb,  onions  from  sets, 
Swiss  chard,  and  cabbage,  are  rather  easy  to  grow  success- 
fully, but  the  greater  number  of  leafy  vegetables  require 
conditions  that  are  very  favorable  to  their  growth.  In 
general,  the  production  of  many  tender  leaves  in  these 
crops  requires  a  rich  soil,  abundant  moisture,  cool  weather 
and  good  cultivation.  Poor  soil,  lack  of  cultivation,  in- 
sufficient moisture,  and  hot  weather  invariably  result  in 
fewer  leaves,  slower  growth,  and  poorer  quality. 

Many  of  the  most  delicious  of  the  leafy  vegetables 
(especially  of  the  salad  crops)  wilt  quickly  when  gathered, 
and  soon  lose  their  tenderness  and  best  flavor.  For  this 
reason  they  are  especially  suited  to  home  production,  for 
then  they  may  be  placed  on  the  table  fresh  from  the 
garden.  With  a  few  exceptions,  home-grown  leafy 
vegetables  excel  in  crispness  and  flavor  the  vegetables 
which  are  bought  in  the  market ;  and  the  excellent  table 
qualities  of  properly  grown  leafy  crops  well  repay  the 
home  gardener  for  his  efforts  in  producing  them. 

At  least  twenty  distinct  sorts  of  plants  may  be  grown 
in  the  home  vegetable  gardens  in  the  United  States  solely 

225 


226 


Gardening 


Stales  Relations  Service 
FIG.  129.    A  boy's  successful  crop  of  leafy  vegetables. 

for  the  leaves  which  they  produce.  In  the  discussion  of 
these  various  crops  it  is  convenient  to  group  them  into 
classes  according  to  the  way  the  young  plants  are  started 
and  the  season  when  the  crop  matures. 


LEAFY  CROPS  PROPAGATED  VEGETATIVELY 

This  class  includes  rhubarb  and  four  bulb-like  plants 
of  the  onion  family  —  chives,  shallots,  garlic,  and 
bulblet  onions.  With  the  exception  of  garlic,  these  vege- 
tables are  ready  for  use  early  in  spring.  Chives  and  the 
bulblet  onions  are  hardy  perennials  that  may  be  left  in 
the  ground  during  the  winter. 

Rhubarb  or  pieplant.  This  plant  thrives  anywhere 
in  the  United  States  except  in  the  lower  planting  zones. 
In  the  northern  sections  it  is  a  long-lived  or  perennial 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  227 

plant,  and  if  planted  on* a  well-drained  soil,  it  withstands 
very  severe  winters.  Early  in  spring  it  throws  up  a  crop 
of  leaves  with  thick,  fleshy  leafstalks.  The  stalk  por- 
tion of  the  leaves  when  properly  cooked  makes  a  tart 
sauce  whose  acid  flavor  is  decidedly  appetizing  in  early 
spring.  In  the  more  southern  parts  of  the  United  States 
the  plant  runs  quickly  to  seed  and  usually  dies  during 
the  summer ;  hence  it  is  not  well  suited  to  culture  there. 

The  acid  flavor  of  rhubarb  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
oxalic  acid,  but  this  acid  is  so  diluted  in  the  fleshy  leaf- 
stalks that  their  use  as  food  does  not  cause  poisoning. 
It  is  not  safe,  however,  to  eat  any  part  of  the  expanded, 
less  fleshy  portion  of  the  leaf.1 

Rhubarb  forms  large  clusters  of  roots,  and  the  plant 
is  usually  propagated  by  digging  up  and  dividing  these 
clusters.  The  plants  should  be  set  about  4  feet  apart 
each  way,  and  the  plot  kept  well  cultivated.  Add 
about  3  inches  of  well-rotted  manure  late  each  autumn 
and  spade  it  under  early  in  the  spring. 

When  left  alone  the  roots  become  crowded,  and  in 
consequence  the  leafstalks  are  small  and  slender.  To 
prevent  this,  the  plants  should  be  divided  and  reset  in 
the  autumn  of  every  third  or  fourth  year.  Dig  up  the 
root  clusters  and  select  for  transplanting  only  good 
roots  with  a  well-formed  bud  or  "eye."  As  the  resetting 
reduces  somewhat  the  yield  for  the  first  year,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  transplant  only  half  the  bed  at  a  time. 

1  The  garden  sorrel  (Rumex  acetosa).  a  near  relative  of  the  rhubarb, 
is  sometimes  cultivated  and  sold  in  the  markets  for  use  as  early  spring 
greens.  It  produces  considerable  amounts  of  oxalic  acid,  and  has  some- 
times caused  death. 


228 


Gardening 


FIG.  130.  Rhubarb  along  the  edge  of  a  garden.  The  photograph  shows  the 
"barrel  method"  of  covering  the  plants  to  make  the  stems  longer  and  more 
tender.  Every  other  barrel  was  removed  before  the  picture  was  taken. 

No  leaves  should  be  pulled  the  first  year  after  reset- 
ting. 

Roots  for  starting  a  bed  may  be  obtained  from  seed 
houses  or  perhaps  from  a  neighbor's  garden.  The 
standard  varieties  known  as  Victoria  and  Linnceus  are 
the  best  sorts. 

Rhubarb  may  be  grown  from  seed  also.  Sow  the  seed 
early  in  spring  in  rows  i  foot  apart  in  a  seed  bed.  Thin 
to  about  6  inches  apart  in  the  row,  and  when  the  plants 
are  a  year  old  transplant  them  to  a  permanent  bed. 

The  outer  leaves  of  the  rhubarb  are  pulled  for  use  as 
soon  as  they  reach  proper  size.  Break  them  off  by  a 
quick  side  twist  and  jerk.  Later  in  the  season  allow 
plenty  of  the  leaves  to  remain  so  that  they  may  furnish 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  229 

food  to  the  underground  parts.  The  plants  will  be  more 
vigorous  if  the  flower  stalks,  which  appear  in  the  early 
summer,  are  cut  (not  broken)  as  fast  as  they  form. 

Chives.  Chives  are  hardy  perennials  having  small, 
onion-like  bulbs  and  narrow,  hollow,  erect  leaves  6  or  8 
inches  in  length.  Left  alone,  the  plants  multiply  rapidly 
and  soon  form  dense  mats.  They  are  readily  propagated 
by  dividing  and  replanting  the  clumps  in  spring.  A 
bunch  of  living  plants  for  the  first  planting  may  be 
obtained  from  a  seed  firm.  The  plant  will  thrive  in  any 
garden  soil.  The  leaves,  which  are  used  in  seasoning 
salads,  stews,  and  soups,  may  be  cut  repeatedly,  as  they 
come  again  quickly. 

In  the  northern  states  the  plants  will  furnish  green 
leaves  during  the  winter  if  clumps  of  them  are  dug  in 
late  autumn,  placed  in  flats,  and  given  the  protection 
of  a  cold  frame  or  a  spent  hotbed. 

Shallots.  The  mature  or  resting  plant  of  the  shallot 
consists  of  a  number  of  elongated  and  gray-colored 
bulblets  (usually  called  "  cloves  ")  attached  at  the  base 
to  a  common  stem.  These  cloves  are  separated  and 
planted  with  the  stem-end  down.  In  the  North,  planting 
is  done  in  the  spring ;  in  the  South,  it  is  usually  done  in 
the  autumn.  Each  clove  quickly  makes  a  leafy  growth 
and  is  soon  ready  for  table  use. 

If  left  undisturbed  the  basal  bulb  splits  up  into  a 
number  of  new  cloves.  These  clusters  may  be  cured  like 
bulb  onions  and  stored  for  winter  use  or  for  planting  the 
following  spring.  Shallots  are  milder  in  flavor  than  most 
onions  and  are  easily  grown.  They  are  deserving  of 
more  general  culture  in  home  gardens. 


230  Gardening 

Garlic.  The  mature  garlic  bulb  consists  of  a  number 
of  small  bulblets  or  cloves,  each  of  which  is  inclosed  in 
a  thin,  dry,  tough  leaf ;  the  whole  cluster  is  in  turn  in- 
closed within  a  larger  dry  leaf.  The  cloves  are  separated 
and  planted  in  eaily  spring,  the  plants  continue  growth 
during  summer,  and  the  mature  bulbs  are  harvested  in 
autumn.  The  dry  tops,  which  are  tough  and  stringy, 
are  braided  together,  and  the  string  of  bulbs  is  hung  up  in 
a  dry  place.  Garlic  has  a  strong  flavor  and  is  used  prin- 
cipally in  flavoring  stews  and  salads.  It  is  well  adapted 
for  growing  in  the  warm  sections  of  the  United  States. 

Bulblet  onions  and  their  culture.  In  these  onions 
the  mother  plant  produces  small  bulbs  or  bulblets  and 
seldom  flowers  and  seeds.  There  are  two  sorts  of  bulblet 
onions,  commonly  known  as  (i)  multiplier  and  potato 
onions,  in  which  the  mother  bulb  itself  splits  up  into 
bulblets,  and  (2)  the  Egyptian  or  perennial  tree  onion, 
which  not  only  divides  at  the  base  but  also  produces 
erect  stalks  at  the  tops  of  which  new  bulblets  develop. 
The  bulblets  of  multiplier  and  tree  onions  are  quite 
similar  in  structure  to  the  onion  sets  grown  from  seed. 
Not  all  seed  firms  list  the  sets  of  these  onions,  but  they 
may  be  had  from  some  firms. 

Multiplier  onions  planted  in  autumn  and  left  in  the 
ground  over  winter  begin  growth  very  early  in  the  spring. 
Almost  before  the  ground  is  thawed  out,  the  bulblets 
begin  to  produce  leaves  and  may  then  be  pulled  for  the 
table.  If  left  alone,  each  bulblet  becomes  n  compound 
bulb  composed  of  new  bulblets.  Unless  well  thinned  by 
pulling  during  the  spring,  the  bulbs  and  bulblets  should 
be  separated  and  replanted  in  autumn  to  prevent  crowding. 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  231 

Tree  onions  also  live  through  severe  winters  without 
injury.  The  basal  or  mother  bulb  divides,  making  tender 
young  plants  suitable  for  use  in  early  spring.  If  left 
alone,  the  plants  may  later  produce  erect  stalks  on  which 
a  cluster  of  new  bulblets  is  produced.  These  may  be 
planted  in  autumn  to  raise  another  crop  of  leafy  plants 
in  the  following  spring. 

The  various  bulblet  onions  furnish,  as  do  chives,  fresh 
leafy  food  suitable  for  table  use  during  spring,  when 
the  green  parts  of  the  leaves  as  well  as  the  basal  parts 
are  tender,  juicy,  and  of  good  flavor.  They  are  then 
pulled,  cleaned,  and  eaten  raw  as  a  relish.  In  the 
markets  such  onions  are  commonly  sold  in  bunches ; 
hence  they  are  often  called  "  bunch  onions."  Later 
in  the  season  the  leaves  become  tough  and  of  strong 
flavor.  The  bulblets  themselves  are  usually  too  small 
to  be  of  much  value  as  "  dry  "  onions,  but  they  are  about 
the  right  size  for  use  in  pickling. 

LEAFY  CROPS  GROWN  FROM  SEED 

The  leafy  crops  that  are  grown  from  seed  may  be 
grouped  into  several  classes,  as  follows : 

(1)  The  bulb  plants,  such  as  seed  onions  and  leeks. 

(2)  "  Gut-and-come-again  "  crops  that  begin  to  yield 
leaves  early  in  the  summer,  like  parsley,  yellow  rocket, 
Swiss  chard,  and  New  Zealand  spinach. 

(3)  The  long-period  cool-season  crops  that  mature  in 
autumn,  like  endive  and  chicory. 

(4)  The   forced   cool-season   crops,   including  celery, 
the  cabbages,  and  head  lettuce. 


232  Gardening 

(5)  The    short-period    crops,    such    as    leaf    lettuce, 
spinach,  peppergrass,  and  mustard. 


BULB   PLANTS    GROWN    FROM   SEED 

Seed  onions  and  leeks  are  the  two  bulb-like  garden 
vegetables  of  this  general  class.  In  seed  onions  the 
leafy  growth  is  rapid  during  the  cool  weather  of  spring, 
but  with  the  arrival  of  hot  weather  the  tops  of  the 
leaves  die,  the  growth  stops,  and  the  fleshy  bases  of 
the  leaves  form  a  bulb  which  "  rests  "  for  a  time  ;  in  this 
condition  it  is  called  "  dry."  In  the  leek  the  bulb  por- 
tion does  not  become  much  enlarged,  but  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  leaves  forms  a  column  of  fleshy  and  edible 
tissue.  The  leek  grows  rather  slowly  during  the  hot 
summer,  but  makes  a  rapid  development  during  the  cool 
season  of  autumn. 

Leeks.  The  leek  is  a  biennial  plant.  The  crop  is 
best  grown  from  seed  sown  early  in  the  spring  in  outdoor 
seed  beds.  The  plants  should  be  transplanted  to  the 
garden  when  6  or  7  inches  tall,  being  placed  4  inches 
apart  in  rows  spaced  at  12  inches.  When  transplanting, 
set  the  plants  deeply  —  almost  to  the  young  center 
leaves  —  so  that  the  column  of  leaves  will  blanch  in  the 
soil.  If  set  lower  than  this,  especially  in  heavy  clay 
soils,  the  heart  may  fail  to  develop  further. 

When  the  crop  is  grown  from  seed  planted  in  the  row, 
a  little  soil  should  be  raked  up  around  the  leaves  from 
time  to  time  as  they  develop.  In  the  northern  sections 
plants  may  be  covered  with  straw  and  left  in  the  field  for 
use  during  winter,  or  they  may  be  dug  and  stored  in  earth 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves 


233 


FIG.  131.     "Dry"  onions  grown  from  onion  sets.    They  are  now  ready  to  be 
pulled,  dried,  and  stored  away  for  the  winter. 


in  a  cool  cellar  or  in  a  cold  frame.  In  the  South  the 
crop  may  be  left  in  the  garden  for  use  as  needed. 

The  green  leaves  of  the  leek  have  a  coarse  texture, 
a  rank  odor,  and  are  strongly  acrid  when  eaten  raw.  The 
blanched  portion  is  more  tender  and  less  acrid.  When 
the  leek  is  cooked,  the  flavor  is  even  milder  than  that  of 
most  onions ;  hence  the  plant  is  excellent  for  flavoring 
soups  and  stews.  There  are  not  many  varieties  of  the 
leek  offered  by  seedsmen.  London  or  American  Flag 
and  Large  Rouen  are  standard  sorts. 

Seed  onions  and  their  culture.  If  the  seed  of  these 
onions  is  planted  in  spring  and  the  plants  well  cared  for, 
each  plant  forms  a  large  bulb  or  "  dry  "  onion  before 
autumn  arrives.  When  properly  cured  and  stored, 


234 


Gardening 


FIG.  132.  When  onions  are  about  two- 
thirds  grown,  the  tops  are  sometimes 
broken  down,  as  shown  in  this  picture. 
By  this  practice  the  growth  of  seed  tops 
is  checked,  the  size  of  the  bulb  is  increased, 
and  hollow  centers  are  not  so  likely  to  form 
within  the  bulb. 


these  bulbs  may  be  used 
as  food  until  late  in 
the  following  spring.  If 
these  one-year-old  bulbs 
are  planted  in  spring, 
they  produce  tall  stalks 
bearing  flowers,  and 
later,  seeds ;  then  the 
mother  bulb  dies.  Seed 
is  thus  produced  in  the 
second  year  of  the  plant's 
growth,  and  for  this 
reason  the  onion  is  a 
biennial. 

If,  however,  the  seeds 
are  sown  late,  or  the 
young  plants  are  much 
crowded,  or  are  grown 
on  poor  soil,  the  plants 
do  not  form  large  bulbs 
that  year.  Instead,  the 
tops  die  in  summer, 
leaving  only  small  bulbs 
that  are  called  "  sets." 
If  these  sets  are  planted 
early  in  the  following 
sufficient  room,  the  plants 

large    "dry"    bulbs. 


spring  in  rich  soil  with 
grown  from  them  will  make 
These,  if  stored  through  the  winter  and  planted  the  fol- 
lowing season,  will  produce  seed.  Sets  are  therefore 
plants  that  are  halfway  to  the  dry  onion  stage  of  de- 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  235 

velopment ;  and  if  the  conditions  for  growth  are  un- 
favorable the  first  year,  the  onion  takes  three  years  to 
complete  its  entire  life  cycle. 

Dry  onions  for  table  use  may  therefore  be  grown  in 
one  season,  either  from  seed  or  from  sets.  Although 
onions  grown  from  sets  are  inclined  to  shoot  to  seed,  the 
crop  is  more  easily  grown  from  sets  than  from  seed. 
They  make  a  much  quicker  start,  and  the  production  of 
bulbs  of  large  size  is  somewhat  more  certain.  It  is  well 
to  buy  sets  of  named  varieties  rather  than  to  buy  simply 
"  sets."  Red  sets  of  the  Red  Wethers  field;  white,  of 
White  Portugal;  and  yellow,  of  Yellow  Darners,  —  are 
recommended  for  general  planting.  Sets  are  planted 
early  in  spring. 

Something  like  30  varieties  of  onions  grown  from  seed 
are  often  listed  by  seedsmen.  Southport  White  Globe, 
Southport  Yellow  Globe,  Southport  Red  Globe,  Danvers, 
Prizetaker,  and  Red  Wethersfield  are  good  varieties  for 
all  sections  of  the  United  States.  The  Queen  or  White 
Pearl  is  an  early,  small,  flat,  white  onion  excellent  for 
pickling.  The  Bermuda  onions  (White  Bermuda,  Red 
Bermuda,  and  Crystal  Wax)  are  good  mild-flavored  sorts. 

In  growing  direct  from  seed,  sow  thickly  in  rows  12 
or  14  inches  apart,  as  soon  as  there  is  no  danger  of  frosts. 
The  young  plants  are  slow  in  getting  a  start.  Cultivate 
well,  and  keep  weeds  out  of  the  rows.  Thin  to  stand  i 
inch  apart  in  the  row,  and  later  remove  every  other 
plant  for  use  as  young  onions,  leaving  the  plants  for  dry 
onions  spaced  about  2  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

Larger  bulbs  and  earlier  bunch  onions  may  be  had  by 
starting  plants  in  a  hotbed,  cold  frame,  or  indoor  seed 


236  Gardening 

bed.  In  doing  this,  sow  seed  about  10  weeks  before 
planting  time.  Transplant  once  to  other  flats  as  soon  as 
seedlings  are  2  inches  tall,  and  space  them  so  that  they 
are  about  i  inch  apart.  As  soon  as  frosts  are  over, 
harden  the  seedlings  and  transplant  them  to  the  garden. 

In  the  South,  seed  is  very  generally  planted  in  the 
autumn  and  the  crop  grows  during  the  mild  winter. 
Even  in  some  sections  of  the  northern  states,  seed  may  be 
sown  in  the  early  autumn ;  the  young  plants  live  over 
winter  and  start  growth  early,  yielding  an  early  crop  of 
bunch  onions,  or  later,  dry  onions. 

All  onions  require  a  rich  and  well-drained  soil.  Success 
in  growing  good  dry  bulbs  from  seed  depends  on  sow- 
ing the  seed  as  soon  as  possible  in  spring,  on  thinning 
early  so  that  the  growing  plants  are  not  crowded,  on 
keeping  the  weeds  from  even  making  a  start  in  the  onion 
plantings,  and  on  frequent  but  shallow  surface  cultivation. 
With  this  treatment,  the  plants  make  rapid  growth 
during  the  cool  spring  season  and  form  bulbs  of  good  size. 
It  is,  however,  somewhat  difficult  to  grow  good  bulbs  in 
localities  where  the  summers  are  cool  and  damp,  for  in 
such  places  the  plants  tend  to  remain  green  and  leafy. 

The  proper  maturing  of  onion  bulbs  depends  on  the 
weather  and  upon  their  treatment.  If  the  bulbs  reach  a 
good  size  by  the  time  hot  weather  arrives,  the  tops  turn 
yellow  and  begin  to  die,  and  the  bulb  enters  a  resting 
condition.  The  bulb  is,  of  course,  still  fleshy  and 
juicy  inside,  and  it  contains  at  least  one  living  bud 
or  "  heart."  As  long  as  this  bud  remains  dormant,  the 
bulb  "keeps" ;  but  if  it  resumes  growth,  the  bulb  soon 
becomes  useless  as  food. 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves 


237 


FIG.  133.     Parsley  grown  in  a  cold  frame  for  use  in  the  late  fall  and  early  winter 

months. 

The  bulbs  should  be  pulled  as  soon  as  the  tops  turn 
down  and  begin  to  wither.  They  may  be  left  in  small 
piles  in  the  open  air  to  dry  for  a  few  days,  after  which 
the  tops  should  be  cut  off.  The  bulbs  are  then  placed  in 
crates  or  on  trays  and  stored  in  a  cool  and  well-venti- 
lated room  where  they  will  not  freeze. 

In  a  small  home  garden,  a  short  row,  kept  planted 
with  multiplier  or  with  tree  onions,  will  supply  a  family 
with  sufficient  bunch  onions  for  use  during  early  spring. 
For  a  supply  of  dry  onions,  the  seed  or  the  sets  of  good 
seed  varieties  should  be  planted. 

CUT-AND-COME-AGAIN   LEAFY   VEGETABLES 

Parsley,  yellow  rocket,  Swiss  chard,  and  New  Zealand 
spinach  are  crops  of  this  class.  The  outer  and  larger 
leaves,  or  even  the  branches,  are  cut  as  they  reach  a  good 
size,  leaving  the  inner  leaves  or  new  shoots  to  develop  for 


238  Gardening 

later  use.  The  repeated  growth  of  these  vegetables 
makes  them  especially  desirable  for  the  small  home 
garden,  for  a  few  plants  occupying  a  row  only  10  feet 
long  will  continue  to  yield  a  harvest  of  leaves  from  early 
summer  until  autumn  frosts.  With  rich  soil,  abundance 
of  water,  and  good  cultivation,  these  vegetables  will 
thrive  and  yield  abundantly  during  the  summer  months. 

Parsley.  Sow  the  seed  of  parsley  rather  thickly,  not 
more  than  ^  inch  deep,  in  shallow  drills  that  are  about 
1 2  inches  apart.  A  row  5  feet  long,  containing  10  plants, 
will  furnish  an  abundance  of  attractive  leaves  for  gar- 
nishing throughout  the  summer  and  autumn.  Plants 
left  in  the  garden  over  winter  will  supply  leaves  for  a 
while  in  the  following  spring,  but  will  soon  run  to  seed. 

Plants  may  be  potted  and  grown  during  the  winter  in 
cold  frames  or  even  in  the  window  of  the  home  for  use 
when  other  green  leaf  vegetables  are  not  readily  avail- 
able. The  Plain-leaved  variety  is  very  hardy,  but  the 
Double-curled,  the  Moss-curled,  and  the  Fern-leaved  are 
more  attractive  in  appearance  and  more  generally  grown. 

Yellow  rocket.  This  plant  is  also  called  "  upland 
cress  "  and  "  common  winter  cress."  It  is  a  member  of 
the  mustard  family  and  is  closely  related  to  mustard, 
peppergrass,  watercress,  and  horse-radish.  The  leaves 
are  used  as  a  salad,  and  the  plant  is  about  the  only  good 
salad  plant  that  will  thrive  during  hot  weather.  Sow 
the  seed  early  in  spring ;  in  about  10  weeks  leaves  will  be 
ready  for  use.  The  plants  form  rather  dense  clusters  of 
leaves,  and  if  these  are  picked  carefully  the  plants  will 
continue  to  bear  leaves.  Yellow  rocket  will  withstand 
rather  severe  frosts. 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves 


239 


FIG.  134.     Gathering  Swiss  chard.     Only  the  largest  leaves  should  be  picked; 
the  others  should  be  left  to  grow. 

In  many  parts  of  the  planting  zone  E,  and  farther 
south,  plants  of  yellow  rocket  grown  from  seed  live 
over  winter  and  will  supply  leaves  until  the  next  spring, 
when  they  soon  run  to  seed.  It  is  said,  however,  that 
the  plants  can  often  be  kept  in  good  condition  for  two 
or  more  years  if  the  flower  stalks  are  picked  off  before 
the  flowers  open. 

Swiss  chard.  Swiss  chard  is  a  variety  of  beet  that 
develops  large  leaves  with  somewhat  fleshy  stems.  It 
does  not  have  a  fleshy  root  like  that  of  the  garden  beet. 
The  culture  of  Swiss  chard  is  the  same  as  for  the  garden 
root  beets.  The  most  satisfactory  variety  is  the 
Luculhis. 


240 


Gardening 


The  outer  leaves  may 
be  cut  closely  at  inter- 
vals from  early  summer 
until  frosts.  The  first 
cutting  can  be  made 
about  60  days  from  date 
of  seed  sowing.  The 
plant  usually  lives  over 
winter  in  and  below 
zone  E,  but  goes  to  seed 
the  second  year. 

New  Zealand  spinach. 
The  New  Zealand  spin- 
ach plant  has  recently 
been  introduced  into 
cultivation  in  America 
where  ;t  is  proving  a 
strong  and  vigorous 
grower.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent plant  for  use  as 
pot  greens. 

The  seeds  have  thick, 
nut-like  walls  and  should  be  softened  by  soaking  to  make 
germination  more  rapid  and  certain.  Put  seeds  in  a  dish, 
pour  over  them  hot  (almost  boiling)  water,  and  let  stand 
for  from  12  to  24  hours  before  planting.  Plant  seeds 
early  in  spring  about  i  inch  deep  in  groups  of  4  or  5, 
about  3  feet  apart.  The  plants  grow  rapidly  and  thrive 
all  summer.  The  upturned  ends  of  the  branches,  with 
several  leaves,  are  cut  for  greens.  New  side  branches  are 
then  formed,  and  growth  is  continued  until  the  plants  are 


FIG.  135.  New  Zealand  spinach,  the  best 
plant  for  summer  greens.  The  tips  of  the 
branches  are  cut,  as  shown  in  the  picture. 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  241 

killed  by  frost.  Six  hills  of  the  plants  will  supply  a  family 
with  one  or  two  "  messes  "  of  tender,  clean  greens  each 
week  from  early  summer  until  frosts  occur. 

In  many  sections  as  far  north  as  planting  zone  F,  the 
plants  seed  themselves  ;  that  is,  the  seeds  which  fall  from 
plants  to  the  ground  live  over  winter  and  germinate  early 
in  the  following  spring.  These  young  plants  may  be 
transplanted  to  a  place  in  the  garden  which  has  been 
properly  prepared  for  planting. 

LONG-PEEIOD   SALAD   VEGETABLES    THAT   MATURE   IN 
AUTUMN 

Endive  and  chicory  are  two  salad  plants  that  mature 
best  in  autumn  as  cool-season  crops.  If  planted  very 
early  in  spring,  they  tend  to  run  to  seed  during  the 
summer,  even  in  the  more  northern  of  the  planting  zones. 
Seeds  are  therefore  planted  in  summer  (in  early  summer 
in  the  north  and  later  farther  south).  The  plants  grow 
rather  slowly  during  hot  weather,  but  are  ready  to  make 
a  rapid  development  during  the  cool  autumn. 

Endive.  Endive  is  a  favorite  bitter  salad  plant, 
grown  in  the  North  as  a  fall  crop  and  in  the  South  as  a 
winter  crop.  The  seed  is  planted  during  June  or  July  in 
the  North  and  as  late  as  in  August  in  the  South.  Seed 
is  sown  directly  in  the  garden  or  in  seed  beds  for  later 
transplanting.  The  plants  should  stand  i  foot  each  way 
in  rows  that  are  at  least  i  foot  apart. 

Varieties  such  as  Green-curled,  Moss-curled,  and  White- 
curled,  which  produce  dense  clusters  of  curled  and  finely 
divided  leaves,  are  very  satisfactory  for  culture  in  the 
home  garden.  When  the  outer  leaves  are  6  or  more 


242  Gardening 

inches  in  length,  they  should  be  drawn  together  and  tied 
with  soft  cord  or  with  raffia,  in  order  to  blanch  the  inner 
leaves.  One  variety  known  as  Escarole  has  broad 
leaves  and  is  less  bitter  than  the  cut-leaved  sorts. 

With  the  approach  of  freezing  temperatures  in  the 
northern  planting  zones,  endive  may  be  stored.  Dig 
up  the  plants,  keeping  a  ball  of  dirt  in  place  about  the 
roots,  and  pack  close  together  in  a  cold  frame  or  in  boxes 
that  are  .placed  in  a  cool  cellar.  Keep  the  soil  moist, 
but  be  sure  that  the  leafy  portion  is  kept  dry  and  well 
exposed  to  the  air  to  prevent  rotting.  Plants  can  readily 
be  kept  in  storage  in  good  condition  for  a  period  of 
at  least  6  weeks ;  with  special  care,  under  most  suitable 
conditions,  they  may  be  kept  much  longer. 

Witloof  chicory  or  French  endive.  When  properly 
grown,  this  plant  yields  a  most  delicious  and  mildly 
bitter  salad  for  use  during  the  winter  months.  Al- 
though easily  grown,  this  crop  has  not  become  well 
known  in  American  gardens ;  but  it  has  long  been  a 
favorite  salad  in  European  countries.  The  variety 
known  as  the  Witloof  is  especially  to  be  recommended. 
In  the  northern  states,  sow  seeds  during  June  or  July 
in  shallow  drills  about  1 2  inches  apart.  Thin  the  young 
seedlings  to  stand  8  inches  apart. 

The  green  leaves  produced  in  the  field  are  not  used 
as  food,  as  are  those  of  the  curled  endive,  but  a  new  crop 
of  leaves  is  forced  from  the  roots  in  the  following  manner : 
The  roots,  which  should  resemble  those  of  the  parsnip 
in  shape  and  size,  are  dug  before  severe  frosts  occur. 
Those  not  needed  for  immediate  forcing  are  stored  in  cold 
frames,  in  pits,  or  in  a  cool  room  of  a  cellar,  so  that 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  243 

they  may  be  used  for  forcing  during  the  winter.  Trim 
the  roots  to  be  used  for  forcing  to  a  length  of  8  inches,  and 
cut  away  the  leaves,  allowing  a  short  "  crown  "  to  remain 
on  the  roots.  Then  set  the  roots,  about  4  inches 
apart,  in  a  box,  placing  earth  about  them  to  the  level  of 
the  crowns.  Water  the  soil  thoroughly,  and  the  next  day 
add  about  8  inches  of  clean  sand.  Place  the  box  in  a 
moderately  warm  cellar  (a  temperature  ranging  from  50° 
to  60°  is  excellent)  and  keep  the  sand  and  soil  moist. 
In  about  15  days  leaves  will  begin  to  protrude  through 
the  sand,  and  some  of  the  heads  will  be  ready  for  use. 
The  same  box  and  soil  may  be  used  for  forcing  suc- 
cessive crops.  The  head  is  a  closely  compacted,  elon- 
gated cluster  of  tender  and  well-blanched  leaves.  The 
ease  with  which  this  delightful  salad  may  be  had  during 
the  winter  months  justifies  its  thorough  trial  by  the 
home  gardener. 

COOL-SEASON  LEAFY  CROPS  GROWN  BY  THE  TRANS- 
PLANTING METHOD 

In  general,  celery,  the  various  members  of  the  cab- 
bage tribe,  pe-tsai,  and  head  lettuce  are  long-period 
crops.  To  obtain  good  spring  or  early  summer  crops 
before  hot  weather  arrives,  the  plants  are  forced  by 
the  transplanting  method.  The  late  or  autumn  crops  are 
grown  directly  from  seeds  or  by  transplanting  from  sow- 
ings made  late  in  spring,  or  in  southern  sections  even  in 
late  summer.  Head  lettuce  is  usually  grown  best  as  a 
spring  crop.  Early  and  late  crops  of  celery,  pe-tsai,  and 
the  various  cabbages  may  be  grown,  but  the  main  crops  of 
these  mature  in  autumn.  In  many  sections  of  the  north- 


244  Gardening 

ern  planting  zones  having  cool  summers,  certain  varieties 
of  celery,  kale,  and  cabbages  may  be  grown  successfully 
as  summer  crops,  the  earlier  varieties  yielding  crops 
during  the  summer  and  the  late  varieties  maturing  in  the 
autumn. 

Celery.  Celery  thrives  best  on  rich  soil ;  it  also  de- 
mands much  water  and  cool  weather.  In  the  North  it  is 
grown  chiefly  as  an  autumn  crop,  although  in  sections 
with  cool  summers,  early  varieties  maturing  in  August 
may  be  grown.  In  the  South  the  plant  is  grown  as  a 
winter  crop  from  seed  grown  in  late  summer  in  outdoor 
seed  beds  that  are  kept  well  watered. 

The  crop  is  best  grown  throughout  the  North  from 
seedlings  that  are  transplanted  twice  —  once  from  seed 
pans  to  flats,  and  then  from  the  flats  to  the  field.  Trans- 
planting leads  to  the  formation  of  many  fibrous  roots 
and  gives  "  stocky  "  plants.  The  seedlings  grow  slowly 
and  need  special  care  throughout  their  entire  period  of 
growth. 

In  the  northern  zones,  seed  of  the  earlier  sorts,  such 
as  the  White  Plume  and  the  Golden  Self -blanching,  may  be 
sown  as  early  as  the  first  of  February  and  the  seedlings 
planted  in  the  garden  as  soon  as  weather  conditions  will 
permit.  The  growth  of  seedlings  is  so  slow  that  even 
under  very  good  care  3  months  may  be  required  to  bring 
them  to  a  good  size  for  transplanting  to  the  garden.  The 
main  or  late  crop  is  best  grown  from  seedlings  that  are 
ready  for  planting  in  the  field  about  July  i.  For  this 
crop  the  varieties  named  above  may  be  planted,  or  some 
of  the  varieties  that  are  better  winter  keepers  (such  as 
Giant  Pascal  and  Winter  Queen)  may  be  grown. 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves 


245 


Celery  plants  are  set  about  6  inches  apart  in  rows. 
Level  culture,  or  setting  the  plants  only  slightly  below 
the  general  level  of  the  soil,  is  considered  better  than 
the  older  methods  of  trench  culture. 

As  the  plants  reach  a  good  size  they  should  be 
blanched.  This  may  be  done  with  dirt  as  follows : 
Draw  the  tops  closely  together  with  one  hand,  and  with  a 
hoe  in  the  other  hand  draw  dirt  up  around  the  plants 
until  only  the  tops  of  the  leaves  protrude.  With  the 


FIGS.  136  and  137.  Celery.  At  the  left  the  seedlings  are  being  transplanted 
from  flats  to  the  garden.  At  the  right  the  mature  plants  are  being  tied  pre- 
paratory to  hilling  up  with  earth.  This  method  of  blanching  is  practiced  es- 
pecially on  sandy  soil. 


246  Gardening 

approach  of  freezing  temperatures,  more  soil  may  be 
banked  up  and  straw  or  leaves  packed  about  and  over 
the  tops.  Then  more  soil  may  be  piled  up,  and  a  board, 
or  two  boards  arranged  as  an  inverted  trough,  placed 
over  the  straw.  This  protects  from  cold  and  keeps  the 
plants  dry.  In  sections  with  moderate  winters  the  crop 
can  be  thus  left  for  use  as  desired  throughout  the  winter  ; 
but  in  the  more  northern  of  the  planting  zones  the  crop 
should  be  stored  in  cool  cellars,  pens,  or  cold  frames  (see 
page  346). 

Blanching  may  also  be  accomplished  by  wrapping  a 
collar  of  paper  about  each  plant  and  tying  it  firmly  in 
place.  Newspaper  may  be  used,  but  stiffer  paper  that 
keeps  its  position  after  rains  is  better.  For  blanching 
early  crops  and  autumn  crops  that  are  to  be  stored  before 
cold  weather  the  use  of  paper  bands  is  advised.  Early 
crops  often  rot  from  heating  if  blanching  with  soil  is 
attempted.  Paper  collars  or  bleachers,  with  special 
metal  "  handlers  "  that  make  easy  the  work  of  arranging 
them,  may  be  bought  of  seed  firms  that  deal  in  garden 
supplies.  The  use  of  3 -inch  Xi  2-inch  drain  tile  for 
blanching  gives  excellent  results,  and  is  to  be  recom- 
mended for  blanching  the  home  supply  of  early  celery. 

The  method  of  "  new  celery  culture  "  recently  used 
consists  of  growing  plants  so  crowded  that  they  are  self- 
blanched  through  mutual  shading.  The  plants  are  set 
about  6  inches  apart  in  rows  that  are  only  8  inches  apart. 
The  soil  is  excessively  manured ;  as  much  as  i  ton  of 
well-rotted  manure  to  the  square  rod  is  often  used,  and 
the  plot  is  kept  well  watered  continually.  When  thus 
"  forced  in  the  field,"  the  crop  is  often  tender  and  wel) 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  247 

self -blanched ;  but  it  is  more  subject  to  disease  and  the 
product  is  often  of  poorer  quality  than  when  given  more 
room  and  blanched  by  banking  with  earth  or  by  collars. 

Cabbage.  All  cabbages  are  best  grown  from  trans- 
planted seedlings  that  have  been  grown  from  8  to  10 
weeks  in  a  hotbed,  cold  frame,  or  outdoor  seed  bed.  For 
early  cabbages,  transplant  to  the  garden  as  soon  as  the 
danger  of  severe  frost  is  over.  For  late  varieties,  trans- 
plant in  June  or  July  in  the  northern  states  and  some- 
what later  southward.  In  the  plot  of  cabbages  shown 
in  Figure  142,  several  varieties  of  early  and  late  cabbages, 
together  with  cauliflower  and  Brussels  sprouts,  were 
planted  at  the  same  time. 

In  many  parts  of  planting  zones  D  and  E,  cabbage  can 
be  grown,  or  at  least  left  outdoors,  over  winter.  In 
the  climate  of  northern  Louisiana,  the  seedlings  for  the 
spring  crop  can  be  reared  in  cold  frames  from  seed  sown 
in  November  or  December  and  transplanted  in  February ; 
in  this  way  the  crop  is  harvested  in  April  and  May. 
Sweet  potatoes  may  then  be  grown  on  the  same  plot,  as  a 
succession  crop.  Treated  in  this  way  in  the  South,  the 
growing  period  of  such  a  variety  as  New  or  Early 
Jersey  Wakefield  is  from  November  i  to  May  i. 

Plantings  of  early  varieties,  such  as  Early  Jersey 
Wakefield,  yield  heads  in  about  90  days,  or  early  in  July 
in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City  if  planted  about 
April  i ;  but  the  heads  do  not  "  keep  "  long  in  hot 
weather.  It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  plant  from  5  to  10 
plants  each  of  several  early  and  late  varieties.  For 
general  culture,  the  following  varieties  are  excellent: 
Early  Jersey  Wakefield  and  Charleston  Wakefield  for  early 


248  Gardening 

use ;  Early  Summer  and  Succession  for  midsummer ;  and 
Autumn  King  and  Danish  Ball  Head  for  fall  and  winter 
use. 

Cabbage  is  an  easy  crop  for  the  beginner  to  grow.  It 
is  likely  to  need  protection  from  aphids,  cutworms,  and 
the  cabbage  worm  (especially  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
injurious  insects) .  The  crop  may  entirely  fail  because  of 
plant  diseases  carried  in  the  soil  and  for  which  there  is 
no  good  remedy.  In  this  case  the  gardener  had  best  not 
attempt  to  grow  the  crop,  for  a  time  at  least ;  or  he  should 
secure  seed  of  varieties  found  to  be  resistant  to  the 
disease.  (See  Figures  172  and  173.) 

Cauliflower.  The  cauliflower  is  less  hardy  than  cab- 
bage and  less  enduring  of  summer  heat.  For  spring 
planting,  the  crop  does  best  in  the  cool  sections  of  the 
more  northern  of  the  planting  zones,  where  the  summers 
are  mild.  The  plant  needs  a  rich  soil  and  plenty  of  room 
to  grow.  It  is  best  to  grow  plants  about  3  feet  apart  each 
way,  with  a  low  and  quick-growing  companion  crop  be- 
tween. The  clusters  of  thick,  fleshy  flower  stalks  are 
blanched  for  table  use  by  tying  the  leaves  together  over 
the  top.  The  mature  heads  are  not  readily  stored  for 
later  use ;  hence  it  is  best  not  to  grow  any  more  plants 
than  can  be  used  as  they  mature.  In  the  North,  Early 
Snowball  and  Dwarf  Erfurt  are  excellent  varieties.  The 
Autumn  Giant  is  a  large-growing  and  late  variety  that 
is  well  suited  to  southern  sections. 

Brussels  sprouts.  Brussels  sprouts  are  grown  best  as 
an  autumn  crop,  but  in  the  South  they  are  extensively 
grown  as  an  early  spring  crop.  The  plant  requires  a 
longer  period  of  cool  weather  than  most  of  the  cabbages, 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  249 

and  is  more  hardy.  It  often  fails  from  lack  of  water  or 
from  excessive  heat.  In  the  North,  when  grown  as  a 
fall  crop,  the  small  heads  of  leaves  or  "  buttons,"  pro- 
duced in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  are  gathered  as  desired 
until  some  time  after  cold  weather  arrives  ;  or  in  sections 
with  severe  winters,  the  plants  may  be  dug  and  stored 
as  recommended  in  a  later  chapter  (20).  If  one  suc- 
ceeds in  the  growing  of  cabbage,  then  it  is  safe  to  try 
the  growing  of  Brussels  sprouts  as  an  autumn  crop. 

Kale  and  collar d.  These  plants  belong  to  the  cabbage 
group,  but  they  have  separate  leaves  instead  of  a  head  as 
the  cabbage  has.  Kale,  which  is  the  most  hardy  of  the 
cabbage  group,  is  an  excellent  winter  crop  in  the  South 
and  a  late  autumn  crop  in  the  North,  where  it  may  be  left 
without  protection  even  in  rather  severe  winter  weather. 
Dwarf-curled,  Siberian,  and  Tall  Scotch  are  standard 
varieties  of  kale. 

The  collard  withstands  summer  heat  better  than  kale 
and  hence  is  better  suited  for  culture  in  the  southern 
planting  zones.  The  variety  known  as  Georgia  is  most 
generally  grown. 

Both  kale  and  collard  are  often  grown  from  seeds 
sown  directly  in  the  garden  in  rows  about  2  or  3 
feet  apart,  and  later  thinned  so  that  the  plants  stand 
about  12  inches  from  one  another  in  the  row.  The 
plants  are  left  standing  where  grown  until  light  freezing 
makes  the  leaves  of  the  loose  heads  tender. 

Pe-tsai  or  Chinese  cabbage.  Chinese  cabbage  is  a 
leafy  vegetable  that  deserves  a  trial  in  the  home  vege- 
table garden.  It  is  generally  grown  as  an  autumn  crop, 
but  even  in  the  northern  planting  zones  it  can  be  grown  as 


250 


Gardening 


a  spring  crop  if  .the  roots  of  young  plants  are  not  dis- 
turbed in  transplanting. 

For  the  spring  crop,  sow  seed  from  4  to  8  weeks  before 
the  date  of  the  latest  frost.  Transplant  from  seed  pans  to 
individual  pots  of  small  size ;  transplant  again  to  larger 
pots  before  plants  become  "  pot  bound  " ;  then  trans- 
plant to  the  field,  keeping  the  roots  and  earth  within  the  pots 
intact.  Grow  in  a  rich  soil,  and  supply  water  in  abun- 
dance unless  rain  is  frequent.  Plants  of  the  larger  vari- 
eties thus  grown  will  often  make  heads  weighing  7  pounds 
in  60  days  from  seed.  The  heads  do  not  keep  well  in  hot 
weather,  hence  the  main  crop  should  be  grown  in  autumn. 
For  an  autumn  crop  sow  seed  late  in  July  in  the  North 
and  later  farther  South,  directly  in  the  garden.  As  the 
plants  may  be  used  when  partly  grown,  it  is  a  good  plan 


FIG.  138.     A  spring  crop  of  Chinese  cabbage  (pe-tsai).     This  is  a  new  vege- 
table that  is  the  best  of  all  salad  plants. 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  251 


Garden  Magazine 

FIG.  139.  Chinese  cabbage.  The  plate  at  the  left  contains  the  tender  inner 
leaves  used  for  salad.  The  outer,  coarser  leaves  are  usually  cooked  like  cabbage, 
and  the  heavy  midribs  are  prepared  like  asparagus. 

to  start  the  crop  with  the  plants  standing  4  or  6  inches 
apart,  and  then  thin  to  12  inches  by  removing  every 
other  one. 

The  tender,  crisp,  and  juicy  blanched  leaves  that  com- 
pose the  central  portion  of  the  head  make  a  most  excel- 
lent salad.  The  outer  leaves  of  mature  heads  and  the 
entire  partly  matured  plant  may  be  cooked  as  pot  greens. 

The  plant  is  not  a  true  cabbage.  It  has  the  flavor  of 
the  turnip.  It  is  more  leafy  than  the  turnip  and,  it 
would  seem,  more  desirable  as  a  crop  for  use  as  pot  greens, 
especially  in  the  South,  where  turnips  are  quite  generally 
grown  for  this  purpose. 

Pe-tsai  is  now  coming  into  more  general  culture  in  the 
United  States.  Several  varieties  are  known  in  China; 


252 


Gardening 


some  of  the  smaller  sorts  resemble  Cos  lettuce  in  habit  of 
growth.  Undoubtedly  varieties  will  be  found  or  de- 
veloped that  are  suited  to  various  conditions  and  needs 
in  the  United  States.  The  beginner  can  grow  good 
crops  from  the  seed  of  any  of  those  varieties  that  may 
now  be  bought  from  seed  firms. 

Head  lettuce.  In  some  localities  having  moist  and 
somewhat  prolonged  cool  weather  in  spring,  excellent 
head  lettuce  may  be  grown  from  seed  sown  early  in  the 
field.  Much  commercial  head  lettuce,  especially  of  the 

Salamander  variety,  is 
thus  grown  in  the  market 
gardens  on  Long  Island. 
In  most  home  gardens, 
good  head  lettuce  can  be 
grown  best  in  the  spring 
by  the  transplanting 
method.  In  many  if 
not  most  sections,  heads 
will  form  only  if  special 
attention  is  given  to 
every  step  in  the  grow- 
ing of  the  crop  so  that 
a  vigorous,  rapid,  and 
continuous  growth  is 
maintained  during  the 
cool  weather  of  spring. 
Give  seedlings  plenty  of 
FIG.  140.  Head  lettuce,  that  was  grown  room  in  flats  (space  them 

out-of-doors  in  the  fall,  being  set  out  in  g^  least  3  inches  apart) 
a  cold  frame  at  the  approach  of  cold 

weather.  m  order  to  obtain  stocky 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves 


253 


^>j\V( 

<sjfe 


FIG.  141.  Head  lettuce  ready  for  transplanting.  On  the  right  a  seedling  pre- 
pared for  transplanting  by  the  'dirt  ball"  method  is  shown.  The  earth  in  the 
flat  is  carefully  compacted  about  the  roots,  thus  preventing  them  from  being 
broken.-  The  plant  at  the  left  has  been  carelessly  pulled  and  has  little  earth  on 
the  roots.  This  plant  may  grow  so  slowly  after  transplanting  that  it  will  fail  to 
form  a  head. 

plants.  In  transplanting,  keep  roots  intact  in  a  large 
ball  of  earth.  Transplant  to  the  garden  during  cool, 
damp  weather.  In  the  garden,  supply  plenty  of  water  if 
needed,  and  cultivate  to  maintain  the  earth  mulch. 

Some  of  the  round-headed  types,  as  the  well-known 
Big  Boston,  May  King,  Iceberg,  Salamander,  and  Hanson, 
together  with  Trianon  Cos  Lettuce,  should  be  tried.  The 
crop  should  be  used  before  hot  weather,  for  then  the 
plants  shoot  up  into  flowers  and  seed. 

Head  lettuce  makes  an  excellent  part-companion  crop 
with  such  a  long-season  crop  as  the  tomato. 

SHORT-PERIOD  COOL-SEASON  LEAFY  CROPS  GROWN  FROM 
SEED  IN  THE  GARDEN 

Leaf  lettuce,  spinach,  peppergrass,  and  mustard 
mature  leaves  so  quickly  during  the  cool  weather  of 
spring  that  seed  may  be  sown  in  the  garden  where  the 


254  Gardening 

plants  are  to  stand.  With  rich  soil,  plenty  of  moisture 
in  the  soil,  and  good  cultivation,  these  vegetables  seldom 
fail  to  produce  satisfactory  crops. 

These  crops  suffer  especially  (as  do  all  other  vege- 
table crops)  from  crowding  in  the  row.  The  average 
gardener  seems  tempted  to  leave  the  plants  standing 
closely  together.  It  does  look  like  a  "  poor  scant  stand  " 
to  thin  the  young  plants  to  3  or  6  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
But  proper  and  early  thinning  not  only  gives  larger 
plants  and  a  greater  total  yield  for  each  row,  but  the 
plants  mature  more  quickly. 

Leaf  lettuce.  Many  excellent  varieties  of  loose  or 
leaf  lettuce  are  listed  in  the  seed  catalogues.  The  seed 
is  usually  sown  in  rows  about  14  inches  apart  and  seed- 
lings thinned  to  stand  5  to  10  inches  apart.  Cos  lettuce 
also  may  be  grown  from  seed  sown  directly  in  the  garden, 
but  the  heads  are  smaller  and  later  in  developing  than 
when  grown  by  the  transplanting  method. 

Spinach.  From  30  to  60  days  is  sufficient  for  the 
development  of  the  loose  clusters  of  spinach  leaves,  so 
widely  used  as  pot  greens.  In  the  North  the  seed  is  sown 
early  in  the  spring.  The  crop  grows  best  on  well-drained, 
warm,  and  rich  soil.  As  the  entire  plant  is  cut  and  used, 
some  of  the  thinning  necessary  may  be  done  by  removing 
the  largest  plants  rather  early.  If  not  used,  the  plants 
soon  run  to  seed,  especially  in  hot  weather.  For  a  late 
crop  sow  seed  late  in  summer  in  the  North,  and  later 
southward.  In  the  more  southern  of  the  planting  zones, 
the  plant  makes  an  excellent  winter  crop. 

Peppergrass.  The  "  peppery  "  flavor  of  peppergrass 
or  garden  cress  makes  the  plant  useful  in  flavoring 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  255 

salads  or  sandwiches.  Its  finely  cut  and  attractive 
leaves  are  used  for  decorating  (garnishing)  various  cooked 
dishes  quite  as  parsley  is  used.  The  seed  is  sown  early 
in  spring  in  shallow  drills  about  8  inches  apart,  and  the 
entire  plant  is  cut  when  it  is  still  tender. 

Mustard.  For  spring  crops  of  mustard,  begin  sowing 
seed  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked.  Plant  rather 
closely  in  drills  about  6  inches  apart.  In  20  to  30  days 
begin  thinning  by  cutting  out  the  larger  plants,  and  con- 
tinue this  until  plants  are  ready  to  bloom.  For  autumn 
crops  begin  sowing  seed  in  late  summer,  and  allow  the 
latest  sowing  about  30  days  for  growth  before  frost.  An 
early  crop  can  be  forced  in  flats  and  the  plants  sheared 
off  as  needed.  The  varieties  of  white  mustard  having 
curled  leaves,  such  as  Large-leaved  Curled  and  Giant 
Ostrich  Plume,  are  recommended. 

Nasturtium.  This  familiar  plant  of  the  flower  garden 
can  be  used  as  food  in  the  same  ways  as  mustard  and 
peppergrass.  The  young  plants  are  used  entire,  or  the 
leaves  and  flowers  of  older  plants  are  plucked.  These 
give  a  delightfully  appetizing  flavor  to  mixtures  of 
salads,  and  especially  to  cold  potato  salad.  The  seed 
pods  of  the  nasturtium  are  also  of  use  in  seasoning  pickles 
and  as  a  substitute  for  capers.  Sow  seeds  of  the  nastur- 
tium about  \  inch  deep,  rather  thickly,  in  flower  beds  or 
in  rows  in  the  vegetable  garden.  Thin  by  pulling  for 
use  the  young  plants. 


From  the  many  leafy  crops  that  may  be  grown  in  the 
home  garden,  one  may  select  a  number  that  are  suitable 


256 


Gardening 


FIG.  142.  A  group  of  plants  belonging  to  the  cabbage  family.  The  varieties 
shown  here  all  mature  at  different  times.  Thus  a  continuous  yield  of  leafy 
vegetables  may  be  had  from  this  little  plot  from  early  summer  until  winter. 
a,  Early  Wakefield  cabbage ;  b,  late  head  cabbage ;  c,  Savoy  cabbage :  d,  Brus- 
sels sprouts ;  e,  cauliflower.  A  little  planning  will  enable  the  gardener  to  have 
a  continuous  supply  of  many  different  combinations  of  leafy  vegetables. 


to  almost  any  condition,  locality,  or  family  taste.  Rhu- 
barb, bulblet  onions,  Swiss  chard,  New  Zealand  spinach, 
leaf  lettuce,  cabbage,  pe-tsai  (as  an  autumn  crop),  and 
chicory  are  all  easily  grown.  With  experience  one  can 
learn  to  grow  many  of  the  other  sorts  of  more  difficult 
culture ;  that  is,  if  they  are  at  all  suited  to  the  local 
conditions. 

A  few  feet  of  row  for  each  sort,  properly  cared  for,  will 
provide  leafy  food  of  a  variety  of  uses  and  tastes,  fresh 
out  of  the  garden  from  early  spring  until  late  autumn ; 
the  surplus  from  such  crops  as  late  cabbage,  pe-tsai,  and 
endive  may  be  stored  for  winter  use,  while  the  crop  of 
chicory  may  be  forced  throughout  the  winter  months. 

The  leafy  vegetables,   so  necessary  to  health,    may 


Crops  Grown  for  Their  Leaves  257 

therefore  be  had  from  the  home  garden  in  quality,  variety, 
and  quantity  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  family. 
Questions 

In  general,  what  conditions  are  best  for  the  development  of 
leafy  crops?  What  conditions  are  unfavorable?  Why  are  most 
leafy  vegetables  best  when  fresh?  What  leafy  crops  are  propa- 
gated vegetatively ?  Which  of  these  are  hardy  perennials? 
Describe  the  propagation  and  culture  of  rhubarb. 

What  are  onion  sets?  How  are  they  obtained  from  seed 
onions?  What  are  the  advantages  of  planting  onion  sets?  the 
disadvantages?  What  are  the  important  points  to  remember  in 
onion  culture?  When  should  onion  bulbs  be  pulled?  What  is 
meant  by  " cut-and-come-again "  vegetables?  What  are  the 
general  requirements  for  this  class  of  leafy  vegetables?  How 
is  Swiss  chard  grown?  Describe  the  culture  of  New  Zealand 
spinach. 

Describe  the  general  method  of  growing  and  storing  endive. 
How  is  Witloof  chicory  (French  endive)  grown  to  produce  salad 
crops  for  winter  use  ? 

What  leafy  crops  are  grown  by  the  transplanting  method  ? 
How  is  celery  grown  ?  Describe  the  various  methods  of  blanching 
celery.  Which  is  the  most  practical  of  these?  Tell  how  you 
would  proceed  to  raise  a  crop  of  late  cabbages  in  the  Northern 
states;  in  the  Southern  states.  What  special  conditions  do 
Brussels  sprouts  require?  Describe  pe-tsai.  What  special 
attention  does  head  lettuce  require  ?  What  leafy  crops  are  grown 
from  seed  planted  directly  in  the  garden?  Why  is  thinning 
especially  necessary  for  these  crops  ? 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1 .  To  determine  the  best  leafy  crops  for  your  locality.     Find  out 
which  leafy  crops  are  generally  grown  in  your  vicinity.     Inquire 
especially  if  pe-tsai  and  French  endive  are  being  raised. 

2.  To  learn  the  best  ways  of  growing  leafy  crops.     Talk  with 
other  gardeners  in  your  neighborhood  about  the  proper  methods 
of  growing  leafy  crops.     Compare  the  results  of  their  methods 
with  yours.     Which  method  proved  to  be  the  most  successful? 
If  the  methods  were  the  same  and  results  different,  try  to  determine 
the  cause  of  the  difference. 


CHAPTER  SIXTEEN 

GARDEN  CROPS  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  FRUITS 

Seeds  are  the  cradles  of  plant  babies;  fruits  are  the 
houses  in  which  the  cradles  are  placed.  And  the  gardener, 
devouring  houses,  babies,  and  cradles  together,  smacks  his 
lips  and  exclaims  about  the  quality  of  his  vegetables ! 

NEVIN  WOODSEDE 

THE  various  garden  crops  grown  for  their  fruits  may 
be  grouped  as  follows  : 

A.  Cool-season  short-period  crops  — 
(i)   Garden  peas. 

B.  Warm-season  crops,  the  seeds  of  which  are  sown 

directly  in  the  garden  - 

(1)  Beans. 

(2)  The  vine  crops. 

(3)  Okra. 

(4)  Sweet  corn. 

C.  Warm-season    long-period    crops    requiring    trans- 

planting - 

(1)  Tomatoes. 

(2)  Peppers. 

(3)  Eggplants. 

This  list  is  not  long,  but  it  includes  several  of  the 
most  important  garden  crops,  among  them  peas,  beans, 
corn,  and  tomatoes.  Since  it  is  the  fruit  of  these  crops 
that  is  eaten,  they  are  grown  until  the  plants  approach 
full  maturity;  yet  in  most  cases  the  fleshy  fruits  are 
used  while  green  or  immature,  and  before  the  seeds  are 
fully  ripe.  With  the  exception  of  garden  peas,  all  the 
crops  here  listed  are  tender,  warm-season  plants,  strongly 
affected  by  even  slight  frosts. 

258 


Garden  Crops  Grown  for  Their  Fruits      259 

Because  of  the  great  difference  in  the  habit  of  growth 
of  the  different  plants,  requirements  for  culture  differ 
greatly. 

GARDEN   PEAS 

The  common  garden  peas  are  divided  into  two  main 
sorts  —  smooth-seeded  and  wrinkled.  The  smooth-seeded 
varieties  will  begin  growth  in  rather  cold  soil,  and  are 
not  injured  by  light  frosts.  They  are  therefore  best  for 
planting  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked  in  spring. 
They  mature  rather  quickly,  and  are  in  most  sections 
short  or  dwarf  in  habit  and  hence  need  no  support  to  hold 
the  plants  erect.  Alaska  is  a  standard  variety  of  this 
class. 

The  wrinkled-seeded  varieties  are  sweeter  but  less 
hardy,  and  must  be  planted  later  in  the  spring.  There 
are  both  low-growing  and  tall-growing  varieties  of 
wrinkled  peas.  Some  of  the  dwarf  sorts,  as  Little  Gem 
and  American  Wonder,  are  extra  early  in  developing. 
Gradus  (also  called  Prosperity)  grows  to  a  height  of 
about  3  feet  and  is  one  of  the  best  sorts.  The  tall- 
growing  varieties  require  a  longer  period  for  growth  and 
should  have  a  support  of  brush  or  a  trellis,  made  with 
poultry  fencing  or  otherwise,  upon  which  the  plants  are 
held  erect.  Telephone,  Prize  Taker,  and  Champion  of 
England  are  excellent  sorts. 

All  varieties  of  peas  require  cool  weather  for  proper 
growth.  If  the  pods  do  not  mature  before  extremely  hot 
weather,  they  will  invariably  be  few  and  will  be  poorly 
filled  with  seeds. 

The  best  crops  of  peas  are  grown  on  rich,  well-drained 


260 


Gardening 


Stales  Relations  Service 

FIG.  143.  Kidney  beans  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil  and  are  one  of  the  best 
crops  for  a  beginner  to  raise.  This  garden  was  planted  chiefly  to  bush  beans, 
with  climbing  beans  along  the  fence.  Strings  were  run  from  the  ground  to  the 
top  of  the  fence  to  support  the  vines  until  they  reached  the  top. 


soil.  In  such  soil  sow  the  seed  in  a  trench  about  4  inches 
deep  and  cover  with  2  inches  of  soil.  Then  as  the  plants 
grow,  fill  in  the  trench  until  it  is  level  with  the  surround- 
ing surface.  The  seeds  are  sown  about  2  inches  in  the 
row.  For  the  dwarf  sorts  the  rows  may  be  about  2  feet 
apart ;  the  tall-growing  varieties  require  more  room. 
On  soil  that  is  likely  to  be  wet  during  the  early  spring- 
time, peas  are  planted  on  slight  ridges  and  covered  to  a 
depth  of  about  an  inch  only. 

The  marrowfat  peas  are  of  somewhat  more  vigorous 
growth  and  are  more  productive  than  the  garden  peas, 
but  are  of  decidedly  poorer  flavor  and  quality  and  are 
not  to  be  recommended  for  the  home  vegetable  garden. 


Garden  Crops  Grown  for  Their  Fruits      261 


The  edible-podded  or  sugar  peas  are  sorts  whose  entire 
pods  may  be  used  as  food  when  the  seeds  are  about  half 
grown.  These  require  the  same  cultural  treatment  as 
the  garden  peas. 

BEANS 

Kidney  beans  are  grown  in  the  garden  almost  solely  for 
the  edible  pods  and  immature  seeds,  which  are  known  as 
'  '  string  "  or  "  snap  '  '  beans  .  Lima  beans  have  much  larger 
seeds,  and  are  grown  for 
the  shelled  beans.  There 
are  dwarf  or  bush  varie- 
ties and  running  or  pole 
varieties  of  both  kidney 
and  Lima  beans. 

All  varieties  of  beans 
are  tender  and  are 
planted  after  danger  of 
frost  is  past.  String 
beans  thrive  best  on  rich 
soil.  They  will  grow  on 
any  soil,  however,  and 
on  raw  or  newly  culti- 
vated land  often  give 
better  returns  than  most 
other  garden  vegetables. 
Lima  beans  are  more 
difficult  to  grow.  They 
require  a  richer  soil, 

more  Warmth,  and  have 

a  longer  growing  period. 


FIG.  144. 


String  beans  that  become  too 

""  P0d  '"  *  "^  "* 


262 


Gardening 


FIG.  145.  The  Kentucky  Wonder  bean  yields  abundantly,  it  is  excellent  in 
quality,  either  as  pod  or  shell  beans,  and  the  ripened  beans  may  be  used  for  bak- 
ing. 

Kidney  or  string  beans.  According  to  the  color  of  the 
immature  pods,  string  beans  are  divided  into  the  green- 
podded  and  the  wax-podded  sorts.  There  are  dwarf  and 
pole  varieties  of  each  sort,  and  some  varieties  are  more 
nearly  stringless  than  others.  The  beginner  should 
plant  such  standard  kinds  of  the  bush  varieties  as 
Stringless  Green  Pod,  Improved  Golden  Wax,  and  1000  to  i 
(also  called  Late  Refugee) ;  and  for  a  pole  variety,  he 
may  well  plant  Kentucky  Wonder.  The  Tennessee  Green 
Pod  is  a  bush  variety  that  is  said  to  excel  all  other  string 
beans  in  flavor. 

As  the  seeds  of  kidney  beans  become  larger  and  more 
mature,  the  pod  portion  becomes  thinner,  less  juicy,  and 
drier.  While  the  seeds  are  still  soft,  they  may  be  shelled 


Garden  Crops  Grown  for  Their  Fruits      263 

and  cooked  as  "  green  shelled  beans."  When  cooked 
with  kernels  of  sweet  corn  cut  from  the  cob,  they  make 
the  well-known  dish  called  "  succotash."  If  the  seeds 
ripen  fully,  they  may  be  used  as  "  dry  beans,"  but  dry 
beans  can  be  bought  in  the  market  much  cheaper  than 
they  can  be  produced  in  the  home  garden. 

Edible  pods  will  be  produced  by  some  of  the  bush  va- 
rieties in  about  30  days  after  date  of  planting.  Plant 
for  successive  crops  at  intervals  of  about  2  weeks  until 
within  40  days  of  the  probable  date  of  the  first  killing 
frost  of  autumn. 

The  bush  varieties  are  usually  grown  in  hills  with  3  to 
5  plants  in  a  hill,  and  the  hills  about  12  to  15  inches 
apart.  In  a  small  garden  the  rows  may  be  2  feet  apart. 
The  bush  varieties  are  the  easier  to  grow.  All  kidney 
beans  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  past. 

Pole  varieties  bear  longer  and  somewhat  more  abun- 
dantly. There  are  numerous  good  varieties,  but  Ken- 
tucky Wonder  is  perhaps  the  favorite.  The  vines  should 
be  supported  on  poles  or  by  a  trellis  or  fence. 

Lima  beans.  The  dwarf  varieties  are  easiest  to  grow 
in  the  home  garden,  as  they  need  less  space  and  require 
no  support.  These  may  be  planted  in  hills,  or  in  contin- 
uous rows  like  the  dwarf  varieties  of  kidney  beans. 

Pole  Limas  are  usually  grown  in  hills.  Remove  the 
soil  to  the  depth  of  about  8  inches  and  a  diameter  of  10 
inches,  place  two  shovelfuls  of  well-rotted  manure  in  the 
hole,  cover  with  soil,  and  plant  5  or  6  seeds  ij  inches 
below  the  surface,  placing  the  seeds  on  edge  with  the 
"  eye  "  down.  The  hills  should  stand  about  3  or  4  feet 
apart.  Supports  should  be  set  in  the  ground  at  the 


264 


Gardening 


time  the  hills  are  prepared.  A  stout  pole  may  be  placed 
in  the  ground  in  the  middle  of  each  hill,  or  lighter  poles 
or  laths  may  be  used.  When  the  lighter  supports  are 
used,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  lean  together  those  from  three 
or  four  adjacent  hills  of  two  rows,  tying  them  together 
securely  at  the  top.  The  giant-podded  sorts  of  pole 
Limas  are  somewhat  more  difficult  to  grow  than  the 
small-seeded  pole  Limas.  The  Sieva  or  Carolina,  well 
known  in  the  South  as  the  "  butter  bean,"  is  one  of  the 
best  of  the  small-seeded  sorts. 


FIGS.  146  and  147.  Planting  Lima  beans.  This  crop  is  more  difficult  to  grow 
than  the  kidney  bean.  It  will  not  be  a  success  unless  the  soil  is  rich  and  well 
prepared,  the  seed  planted  at  just  the  right  time  and  depth,  and  the  plants  well 
cared  for  through  the  entire  season. 


Garden  Crops  Grown  for  Their  Fruits      265 
VINE  CROPS 

All  the  vine  crops  grown  for  their  fruits  belong  to 
the  gourd  family.  They  are  very  much  alike  in  habit  of 
growth  and  in  cultural  needs.  All  are  tender  and  de- 
cidedly warm-season  crops,  maturing  in  summer  or 
autumn.  Their  wide-spreading  vines  require  more  room 
than  can  usually  be  spared  in  the  garden  of  small  size. 
In  the  more  northern  states  the  season  of  growth  is 
scarcely  long  enough  for  some  of  the  vine  crops  to 
mature. 

Of  this  group,  the  bush  squashes  and  the  cucumbers 
are  the  most  suitable  for  planting  in  the  home  garden. 
The  bush  "squashes"  (really  pumpkins)  do  not  have 
the  vine  habit,  and  their  fruits  mature  in  summer. 

All  vine  crops  are  grown  in  hills.  For  early  crops, 
plants  may  be  started  under  glass,  but  special  pre- 
cautions should  be  taken  to  keep  the  roots  intact  during 
the  transplanting.  As  seedlings  of  these  plants  develop 
quickly,  they  should  be  started  only  about  2  weeks  before 
the  planting  date. 

Cucumbers.  In  the  home  garden  cucumbers  are 
grown  chiefly  for  the  green,  immature  fruits.  Grow  in 
hills  about  4  feet  apart  in  rich  soil  and  keep  well  watered. 
In  the  cooler  sections  of  the  more  northern  states  a  single 
planting  of  both  early  and  later  varieties  may  be  suffi- 
cient. Further  south  and  in  sections  where  the  summers 
are  hot  and  dry  the  plants  tend  to  die  during  the  summer, 
and  a  second  or  late  planting  is  advisable.  Cucumbers 
may  be  grown  as  a  companion  and  follow  crop  with 
such  early  crops  as  radishes  and  peas. 


266  Gardening 

The  White  Spine,  Davis  Perfect,  and  Emerald  are  all 
recommended  for  culture  throughout  the  United  States. 

Pumpkins  and  squashes.  Many  of  the  plants  com- 
monly called  "  squashes  "  are  really  more  closely  re- 
lated to  the  pumpkins  than  to  the  true  squashes.  The 
best  of  these  for  home  gardens  are  the  Yellow  Crookneck, 
very  generally  known  in  the  North,  and  the  Scallop  and 
the  Patty  Pan  types,  more  generally  grown  in  the  South. 
These  are  bush  varieties  that  take  up  little  space.  The 
fruits  are  used  while  still  green  and  before  the  shells 
become  hard. 

A  recent  variety,  the  Fordhook,  which  appears  to  be 
suitable  both  for  summer  use  and  for  winter  storage,  is 
worthy  of  a  trial. 

The  Vegetable  Marrow,  with  a  running  vine  habit  of 
growth,  is  also  a  pumpkin.  It  is  a  favorite  in  England 
and  seems  to  deserve  more  general  use  in  America.  The 
Improved  Prolific  Marrow  is  early,,  an  abundant  yielder, 
and  excellent  for  frying  when  the  fruits  are  yet  small. 

The  large-fruited  pumpkin  is  a  well-known  field  crop 
often  grown  as  a  companion  crop  with  corn.  Varieties 
known  as  "  sugar  pumpkins,"  which  have  smaller  fruits 
that  mature  earlier  in  autumn,  are  more  desirable  for  the 
home  garden. 

The  best  known  of  the  true  squashes  is  the  Hubbard  or 
winter  squash.  This  plant  has  a  wide-running  vine,  and 
it  requires  plenty  of  sunlight.  Its  large,  hard-shelled 
fruits  mature  in  autumn  and  are  stored  for  winter  use. 
The  Delicious  is  said  to  be  the  best  flavored  of  the  winter 
sorts,  and  when  partly  mature  its  fruits  may  be  used  in 
the  same  way  as  those  of  the  summer  squashes. 


Garden  Crops  Grown  for  Their  Fruits      267 

TK 


FIG.  148.  Vine  crops  may  be  grown  along  the  edge  of  a  planting  of  corn,  or 
alternately  with  double  rows  of  corn.  The  vines  are  then  allowed  to  run  in 
among  the  corn,  and  where  the  summers  are  hot  the  crop  is  often  better  because 
of  the  partial  shade  from  the  corn.  The  photograph  shows  pumpkins  and  corn 
as  close  neighbors. 

The  Cushaw,  also  known  as  the  China  or  Canada 
Crookneck  and  as  the  Winter  Crookneck,  is  sometimes 
classed  with  the  pumpkins  and  sometimes  with  the 
squashes.  It  is  really  a  different  species.  The  Cushaw 
produces  a  fruit  having  a  long,  thick  neck  of  solid  flesh ; 
all  the  seeds  are  in  a  small  cavity  in  the  outer  end,  which 
is  somewhat  enlarged.  The  variety  Japanese  is  the 
earliest,  and  White  Cushaw  is  a  well-known  winter  sort. 

Squashes  and  pumpkins  respond  well  to  the  addition 
of  manure  in  the  hill,  as  described  on  page  263  under 
directions  for  planting  Lima  beans.  The  pumpkin  with 
running  vine  and  the  Hubbard  squashes  may  be  grown 
as  a  companion  crop  with  corn. 

Melons.  Muskmelons  (including  cantaloupes)  and 
watermelons  are  grown  in  the  same  manner  as  cucumbers. 


268 


Gardening 


FIGS.  149  and  150.  Muskmelons.  The  young  plants  at  the  left  are  being 
given  an  early  start  in  glass-covered  individual  frames.  At  the  right  flower 
pots  are  being  placed  under  the  melons  to  raise  them  off  the  ground.  This 
prevents  rotting  and  insures  more  even  and  quicker  ripening. 

They  thrive  much  better,  however,  during  hot  weather, 
for  the  heat  and  light  of  summer  are  necessary  for  the 
maturing  of  the  fruits.  A  rich,  well-drained  soil  will  often 
produce  good  melons,  but  as  a  rule  the  conditions  in  most 
home  gardens  do  not  make  a  good  crop  certain.  Musk- 
melons  should  be  grown  in  hills  spaced  about  6  feet 
apart ;  watermelons  require  more  space. 

The  juice  of  the  preserving  watermelon,  commonly 
called  citron,  is  used  in  making  jelly  of  fruits  whose  juices 
do  not  readily  jell  alone.  The  flesh  is  used  in  making 
preserves. 


Garden  Crops  Grown  for  Their  Fruits      269 

Seed  catalogues  list  many  varieties  of  muskmelons. 
The  beginner  should  perhaps  choose  first  the  sorts  that 
are  most  successfully  grown  in  the  locality.  The  Rocky 
Ford  or  Netted  Gem,  Emerald  Gem,  and  Defender  (also 
called  BurreVs  Gem)  are  excellent  sorts  for  general  culture. 
Extra  Early  Hackensack  and  Osage  are  two  other  varie- 
ties that  are  extensively  grown. 

OKRA 

This  plant  grows  splendidly  throughout  the  southern 
and  the  middle  states.  Dwarf  varieties  can  be  grown 
with  some  success  farther  north,  especially  if  seedlings 
are  started  under  glass;  and  in  some  sections  of  the 
North  the  crop  grows  well  if  planted  on  rich  soil  in  a 
sunny  location. 

The  crop  thrives  on  any  good  garden  soil,  but  does 
best  on  a  rich,  well-drained  soil.  The  seed  is  slow  in 
germinating,  but  the  process  can  be  hastened  and  made 
more  certain  by  soaking  the  seed  in  water.  Because 
of  the  cold  soil,  the  seed  of  early  plantings  often  fails  to 
germinate. 

The  seed  is  sown  in  rows  rather  thickly,  to  allow  for 
poor  germination.  The  plants  that  grow  should  be 
thinned  to  stand  15  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The 
young  tender  pods  are  harvested  when  one-half  or  two- 
thirds  grown,  and  used  in  soups,  as  well  as  for  making 
the  famous  Southern  "  Creole  gumbo." 

The  Dwarf  Prolific  is  an  early  variety  that  can  be 
recommended.  Other  excellent  sorts,  such  as  White 
Velvet  and  Long  Green,  are  very  satisfactory. 


270  Gardening 

SWEET   CORN 

This  plant  should  have  a  place  in  every  garden,  except 
perhaps  those  of  very  small  area.  It  is  easily  grown,  its 
fruit  has  a  high  food  value,  and  any  surplus  in  the  crop 
can  readily  be  canned  or  dried.  Besides,  some  of  the 
most  delicious  varieties,  such  as  the  Golden  Bantam,  can 
seldom  be  bought  in  the  markets.  This  variety  is  un- 
doubtedly the  best  for  the  home  garden.  It  does  not 
yield  so  heavily  as  larger-eared  sorts,  but  it  is  more 
sweet  and  tender. 

An  excellent  plan  is  to  grow  about  three  varieties 
which  mature  at  different  times.  A  judicious  planting  of 
early,  medium,  and  late  sorts,  to  the  total  of  100  hills 
or  more,  will  supply  the  ordinary  family  abundantly. 

The  first  planting  of  corn  is  made  after  all  danger  of 
frost  is  past.  Plant  the  seed  from  i  to  2  inches  deep, 
either  in  rows  or  in  hills.  If  in  rows,  the  single  stalks 
may  stand  about  12  to  15  inches  apart ;  if  in  hills,  plan 
for  3  stalks  in  a  hill,  with  the  hills  3  feet  apart  each  way. 

Succession  plantings  of  one  variety  may  be  made  at 
intervals  of  2  weeks  ;  but  if  the  soil  is  not  especially  rich 
and  well  watered  during  a  dry  summer,  this  plan  may 
result  in  a  stunted  development  of  the  later  crops.  As  a 
rule,  the  more  certain  plan  is  that  of  growing  early  and 
late  varieties  which  are  planted  about  the  same  time. 

The  ears  are  best  for  table  use  if  picked  in  the  "  milk 
stage  "  and  used  promptly.  In  the  milk  stage  the  ker- 
nels are  well  filled  and  plump,  but  still  soft  and  juicy. 
They  are  right  for  use  when  a  quick,  sharp  pressure  of 
the  finger  nail  causes  the  seed  coat  to  burst  and  the  juicy 


Garden  Crops  Grown  for  Their  Fruits      271 


FIG.  151.     "  But  let  the  good  old  crop  adorn 

The  hills  our  fathers  trod ; 
Still  let  us  for  His  golden  corn 
Send  up  our  thanks  to  God."        WHITTIER 


272 


Gardening 


milk  to  spurt  out.  The  seeds  soon  pass  to  the  "  dough 
stage  "  ;  the  contents  then  become  somewhat  like  dough 
or  putty. 

The  seed  catalogues  offer  a  choice  of  many  varieties 
of  sweet  corn.  Extra  early  varieties  to  be  recommended 
areGolden  Bantam,  Malcolm,  and  Nordheim  Extra-early; 
medium  early  varieties  are  Adams'  Early  and  Crosby; 
the  best  of  the  late  sorts  are  Country  Gentleman,  Black 
Mexican,  and  Stowell's  Evergreen. 

Pop  corn  is  grown  in  the  same  way  as  sweet  corn. 
The  ears  should  fully  ripen  on  the  stalk  and  should  be 
stored  where  they  are  neither  too  damp  nor  too  dry. 


FIGS.  152  and  153.     At  the  left,  cutting  the  "suckers"  from  the  corn;   at  the 
right,  training  up  a  tomato  vine  by  the  stake  method. 


Garden  Crops  Grown  for  Their  Fruits      273 


FIG.  154.     Tomato  vines  with  barrel-hoop  supports. 

Varieties  like  Tom  Thumb  and  White  Rice  may  be  grown 
in  the  home  garden. 

TOMATOES 

From  80  to  125  days  are  needed  to  bring  the  fruits  of 
the  tomato  to  ripeness.  To  secure  early  crops,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  plants  of  good  size  ready  for  trans- 
planting to  the  garden  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  past. 
With  proper  care  such  plants  can  be  had  in  from  6  to  8 
weeks  from  time  of  sowing  seed. 

The  tomato  is  a  tender  plant  that  quickly  suffers  from 
poor  treatment,  but  it  responds  to  careful  handling  and 
proper  transplanting.  There  are  many  good  varieties 
of  tomatoes.  For  general  table  use  those  with  medium- 
sized,  well-formed,  solid,  red  fruits  are  most  desira- 
ble. 

In  the  North  the  early  and  late  varieties  are  planted  at 
the  same  time.  In  the  South,  where  the  plants  grow 


274 


Gardening 


FIGS.  155  and  156.     At  the  left,  setting  out  pot-grown  peppers;   at  the  right, 
harvesting  the  "eggs"  from  eggplants. 


poorly  or  may  even  die  during  the  summer,  a  late  crop 
may  be  raised. 

In  the  home  garden  it  is  best  to  grow  plants  from  18  to 
30  inches  apart.  Each  plant  should  be  tied  up  to  one  or 
more  stakes  as  a  support,  and  the  side  branches  cut  away 
as  they  develop,  leaving  the  main  stem  and  possibly  two 
or  three  lateral  ones  to  develop.  After  several  clusters 
of  fruit  are  formed  on  a  stalk,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pinch 
off  the  growing  tip. 

Earliana,  Bonny  Best,  and  Chalk's  Early  Jewel  are 
perhaps  the  best  of  the  early  sorts.  The  Stone,  Acme, 
and  Ponderosa  are  somewhat  later,  but  yield  heavily. 


Garden  Crops  Grown  for  Their  Fruits     275 
PEPPERS 

Peppers  are  tender  plants  requiring  quite  the  same 
temperature  conditions  as  the  tomato.  They  are  slower 
in  growth  and  need  a  longer  growing  period.  In  the 
northern  states  only  one  crop  can  be  grown,  and  this  by 
the  transplanting  method.  A  few  plants  will  usually 
supply  the  needs  of  a  family;  the  plants  may  stand 
from  i  to  2  feet  apart  in  rows.  The  large-fruited  and 
sweet  varieties  are  best.  The  smaller  sorts  are  more 
"  peppery  "  in  taste. 

EGGPLANTS 

The  eggplant  needs  a  rich,  warm  soil,  for  it  is  a  tender 
plant  and  grows  slowly.  A  period  of  8  or  9  weeks  of 
proper  forcing  under  glass  is  necessary  to  bring  the 
plants  to  good  size  for  transplanting  to  the  garden.  The 
beginner  is  advised  to  try  one  of  the  early  small-fruited 
sorts  and  to  rear  or  purchase  well-grown  plants  for  plant- 
ing. Fortunately  the  fleshy  and  almost  solid  fruits  are 
used  before  they  are  fully  ripe,  and  for  this  reason  the  crop 
may  be  grown  where  the  season  is  too  short  to  bring  the 
fruits  to  full  maturity.  In  the  extreme  North,  however, 
the  growing  season  is  rather  too  short  to  bring  the  plants 
to  full  production. 

Questions 

What  are  the  main  differences  between  the  smooth-seeded 
varieties  and  the  wrinkled  varieties  of  garden  peas  ?  How  should 
peas  be  planted?  How  do  string  beans  and  Lima  beans  differ 
in  their  requirements  ?  Describe  the  proper  method  of  planting 
Lima  beans. 


276  Gardening 

What  can  you  say  of  the  general  characteristics  and  cultural 
needs  of  the  vine  crops?  How  should  cucumbers  be  grown? 
Name  some  of  the  pumpkins  and  squashes  and  their  individual 
characteristics.  What  special  conditions  do  melons  need  to  grow 
and  yield  well  ?  How  is  okra  grown  ? 

When  should  the  first  planting  of  corn  be  made?  How  is  it 
planted?  What  is  the  best  plan  for  providing  a  successive  yield 
of  corn  ?  What  is  the  best  way  of  determining  when  the  ears,  are 
best  for  table  use  ?  Why  should  sweet  corn  be  used  as  soon  as 
possible  after  it  has  been  pulled  ? 

How  much  time  does  the  tomato  plant  need  to  grow  from 
planting  the  seed  to  yielding  the  first  fruit  ?  Describe  the  planting 
and  care  of  tomatoes.  Give  a  brief  summary  of  the  cultural 
requirements  of  peppers ;  of  eggplants. 


Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1.  To  determine  the  -varieties  of  the  crops  that  are  grown  for  fruits 
in  your  neighborhood.     Visit  every  garden  in  your  neighborhood. 
Make  a  list  of  each  variety  of  fruit  crop  grown  in  gardens,  and  put 
down  the  number  of  gardeners  growing  each  variety.     Then  find 
the  variety  that  is  grown  by  the  greatest  number.     Ask  each 
gardener  why  he  grows  this  particular  variety.     For  example,  if 
you  find  that  of  the  pole  beans  Kentucky  Wonder  is  the  variety 
most  often  grown,  find  out  from  each  grower  if  he  grows  this 
variety  because  he  likes  the  flavor,  because  it  yields  abundantly, 
because  it  is  easier  to  grow  than  others,  or  just  because  other 
gardeners  in  his  neighborhood  grow  it. 

2.  To  find  the  best  method  of  bringing  tomatoes,  melons,  and 
squashes  to  early  fruiting.     Inquire  of  gardeners  if  they  use  plant 
protectors  in  the  spring  and  if  they  have  any  special  practices 
for  causing  these  plants  to  fruit  early. 


CHAPTER  SEVENTEEN 

GARDEN  PLANTS  GROWN  FOR  THEIR  STEMS 

Leaves  for  relishes !    But  for  solid  support,  let  us  have  the  stems. 

NEVIN  WOODSIDE 

IN  the  United  States,  Irish  potatoes,  the  Jerusalem 
artichoke,  kohl-rabi,  and  asparagus  are  the  only  impor- 
tant garden  vegetables  that  are  grown  for  their  stems. 
These  four  plants  belong  to  widely  different  families  of 
flowering  plants,  and  are  very  different  in  their  cultural 
needs. 

THE   IRISH  POTATO 

The  underground  tubers,  or  thick,  fleshy  stems,  of  the 
potato  have  recently  become  a  most  important  food 
for  man.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  America,  but  it  is 
now  cultivated  over  practically  all  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
world  and  also  in  the  mountains  of  the  tropics.  More 
tons  of  potatoes  than  of  either  wheat  or  rice  are  now  used 
each  year  for  human  food ;  so  the  potato  is  one  of  the 
leading  food  plants  of  the  world. 

In  general,  potatoes  are  a  field  rather  than  a  garden 
crop.  On  the  farm  there  is  every  advantage  in  growing 
them  in  fields  where  rotation  of  crops  is  the  rule.  The 
villager  and  others  who  own  at  least  a  half  an  acre  or 
more  of  land  may  find  it  profitable  to  raise  potatoes, 
especially  the  early  sorts  which  mature  at  the  time  po- 
tatoes command  the  highest  prices.  In  the  small  garden, 
where  intensive  methods  are  necessary  and  a  crop  must 
be  judged  by  the  returns  for  the  space  it  occupies,  the 
potato  is  not  as  profitable  as  some  other  crops.  Another 
reason  for  buying  potatoes,  rather  than  raising  them  in  a 

277 


Gardening 


FIG.  157.  Planting  potatoes.  The  tubers  are  never  formed  deeper  than  the 
"seed"  is  planted.  Hence  the  planting  furrow  should  be  3  or  4  inches  in  depth. 

small  garden,  is  that  they  stand  shipping  well  and  those 
bought  are  often  of  better  quality  than  those  grown  at 
home. 

The  plant  is  propagated  from  the  tubers,  which  are  cut 
into  three  or  four  pieces  of  nearly  equal  size  so  that  each 
piece  has  at  least  two  "  eyes  "  or  buds.  These  pieces  are 
planted  from  3  to  4  inches  deep  and  12  to  15  inches  apart 
in  rows  that  are  2j  or  3  feet  apart.  Cultivate  well,  and 
hill  up  the  soil  about  plants  to  protect  the  tubers  from 
the  sun  and  to  give  loose  earth  in  which  they  can 
develop. 

In  the  North  the  early  crop  is  planted  as  soon  as  the 
soil  can  be  prepared  in  spring,  and  tubers  for  the  main  and 
late  crop  are  planted  soon  after.  In  the  South  the  early 
crop  is  planted  from  December  to  March,  according  to 
the  winter  conditions  prevailing  in  the  particular  section. 


Garden  Plants  Grown  for  Their  Stems     279 

A  fall  crop  is  planted  in  July  or  August.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  both  early  and  late  sorts,  and  as  a  rule  the 
same  variety  is  not  planted  for  both  the  early  and  the 
late  crops.  It  is  best  to  grow  the  kinds  most  generally 
cultivated  in  the  region. 

Potatoes  are  very  subject  to  attacks  of  many  diseases. 
Some  of  these  diseases  are  carried  from  year  to  year  in 
the  tubers.  Such  diseases  may  be  avoided  in  a  large 
measure  by  planting  tubers  from  crops  grown  in  north- 
ern Maine,  Vermont,  New  York,  or  Wisconsin,  where 
these  particular  diseases  are  not  so  frequent  or  so  severe. 
Other  diseases,  commonly  called  "  blights  "  and  "  rots," 


FlGS.  158  and  159.     At  the  left,  dusting  with  Paris  green;  at  the  right,  gather- 
ing the  crop. 


280 


Gardening 


may  be  kept  somewhat  in  control  by  spraying  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture  (see  page  295). 

Insect  enemies  of  potato  plants  are  always  abundant. 
In  some  years  the  potato  aphid  (a  tiny  plant  louse)  is 
very  destructive  unless  vigorously  combated  with  nico- 
tine sulfate  sprays.  The  potato  "  bug  "  (really  a 
beetle,  not  a  true  bug)  is  nearly  always  present.  Dust- 
ing with  Paris  green  and  the  use  of  poison  sprays  are 
effective  for  the  larvae  of  potato  beetles,  and  the  adults 
can  be  eradicated  by  hand  picking. 


JERUSALEM   ARTICHOKE    OR    GIRASOLE 

This  sunflower  was  a  food  plant  well  known  to   the 


FIG.  160.  The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  ornamental  as  well  as  useful.  Here  it 
is  grown  on  the  edge  of  the  garden  to  serve  as  a  screen  for  the  hen  yard  in  the 
rear. 


Garden  Plants  Grown  for  Their  Stems     281 


FIG.  161.     Tubers  of  Jerusalem  artichoke,  all  from  one  hill. 

Indians  at  the  time  America  was  discovered.  It  was  soon 
taken  to  Europe,  where  it  has  been  rather  extensively 
cultivated ;  but  in  its  native  land  it  has  been  neglected. 
The  swollen  underground  stems  are  delicious ;  they  are 
usually  served  boiled. 

The  girasole  thrives  in  any  good  garden  soil.  Plant 
three  or  four  small  tubers  or  pieces  of  large  tubers  in  hills 
3  feet  apart  each  way.  Cultivate  as  for  corn.  The  leafy 
stems  grow  to  a  height  of  6  or  more  feet,  making  a  dense 
mass  of  foliage.  The  yield  of  the  improved  sorts  is  truly 
enormous ;  a  single  hill  of  the  "  white-tubered  "  variety 
often  yields  as  much  as  18  pounds  of  tubers.  Some  of 
the  less  prolific  sorts,  as  Suttorfs  Rose,  have  smoother 
tubers  than  those  that  yield  more  abundantly. 

The  tubers  are  ready  for  use  in  October ;  and  as  the 
plant  is  hardy,  they  may  be  left  in  the  ground  during  the 
winter  without  injury. 


282 


Gardening 


As  the  plant  often 
grows  to  a  height  of  8 
or  10  feet,  it  is  especially 
effective  as  a  hedge-like 
screen  (Fig.  160). 

ASPARAGUS 

This  hardy  perennial 
survives  severe  winter 
weather  and  yields  crops 
of  fleshy  young  stems 
very  early  in  the  spring. 
The  plant  will  thrive  on 
any  good  garden  soil, 
but  prefers  a  rich,  sandy 
loam.  The  site  chosen 
for  an  asparagus  bed 
should  be  well  drained 
and  so  situated  that 
it  dries  out  quickly  in  the  early  spring. 

Before  the  plants  are  set  out,  the  soil  should  be  spaded 
deeply  and  abundantly  manured.  For  the  garden  it 
is  best  to  buy  well-grown  roots  one  year  old.  Plant 
either  in  autumn  or  in  spring,  rather  deeply  (4  inches  be- 
neath the  surface),  15  inches  apart  in  rows  3  feet  apart. 
Make  a  trench  or  furrow  4  inches  deep  and  set  the  plants 
in  the  bottom,  spreading  the  roots  out  horizontally  in 
all  directions.  The  crown  of  the  plant  is  thus  buried 
deeply,  and  is  less  likely  to  be  injured  when  the  stalks 
are  cut  for  table  use.  During  the  first  year  after  plant- 
ing, cut  none  of  the  young  shoots  for  table  use  ;  and  cut 


FIG.  162.  Cutting  asparagus.  The  stalk 
should  be  cut  an  inch  or  two  below  the 
surface  of  the  soil. 


Garden  Plants  Grown  for  Their  Stems     283 


sparingly  the  second 
year.  In  spring  culti- 
vate freely  between  the 
rows  and  pull  loose  soil 
up,  forming  a  ridge  over 
the  row.  This  helps  to 
blanch  the  shoots  as  they 
push  up  to  the  light. 

The  cutting  season 
lasts  for  several  weeks, 
but  toward  its  close  the 
shoots  become  smaller 
and  more  woody.  Then 
it  is  time  to  level  the 
ridges  with  a  rake,  work- 
ing into  the  soil  at  the 
same  time  a  liberal 
coating  of  well-rotted 
stable  manure.  The  green  branches  are  now  allowed 
to  grow  throughout  the  rest  of  the  season  and  thus 
store  up  food  in  the  roots  for  the  crop  of  the  following 
spring. 

With  proper  care  a  bed  will  remain  highly  productive 
for  as  long  as  15  or  20  years.  If  a  bed  is  producing 
only  poor,  spindling  shoots,  it  is  best  to  start  a  new  bed 
elsewhere,  using  new  plants. 

KOHL-RABI 

Kohl-rabi  is  a  member  of  the  cabbage  group  that  pro- 
duces a  fleshy  enlargement  of  the  stem  just  above  the 
ground.  If  gathered  before  it  reaches  full  size  (about 


Van  Ei'He  Kilpatrick 

FIG.  163.  Kohl-rabi  is  in  the  best  condi- 
tion for  use  when  about  the  size  shown  in 
this  picture. 


284  Gardening 

2  or  3  inches  in  diameter),  this  stem  portion  is  tender 
and  juicy,  and  when  cooked  like  turnips  it  is  of  excel- 
lent flavor. 

In  the  extreme  north  of  the  United  States,  seed  sown 
directly  in  the  garden  about  May  i  will  begin  to  yield  a 
crop  about  July  i.  Well-grown  plants  transplanted  to 
the  garden  on  this  date  (May  i)  will  mature  somewhat 
sooner.  In  the  South,  very  early  and  late  crops  may  be 
treated  the  same  as  early  and  late  crops  of  cabbage. 
Late  crops  may  be  stored  for  winter  use,  along  with  cab- 
bage and  root  crops.  Plants  maturing  in  warm  weather 
soon  become  pithy  and  tough  if  not  used ;  hence  kohl- 
rabi should  not  be  overplanted.  In  localities  with  cool, 
moist  summers,  the  crop  does  excellently  during  summer ; 
but  in  sections  with  hot,  dry  summers,  it  often  fails  if 
planted  so  that  it  matures  during  the  hot  weather. 

The  variety  Early  White  Vienna  is  recommended  for 
general  use. 


Questions 

Why  is  the  potato  an  important  vegetable  ?  Why  are  potatoes 
a  field  rather  than  a  garden  crop  ?  How  are  they  planted  ?  When 
is  the  usual  time  for  planting  them?  What  does  "hilling"  do 
for  potato  plants  ?  How  are  potato  beetles  controlled  ? 

How  should  Jerusalem  artichoke  be  grown  ?  What  would  be 
the  best  place  in  the  garden  to  plant  it  ? 

Describe  the  method  of  starting  an  asparagus  bed.  How 
should  the  bed  be  treated  after  the  cutting  season?  How  long 
should  a  good  asparagus  bed  last  ?  What  are  the  indications  that 
a  bed  is  not  doing  as  well  as  it  should  ? 

How  does  kohl-rabi  differ  from  head  cabbages?  How  is  this 
plant  affected  by  hot  weather  ? 


Garden  Plants  Grown  for  Their  Stems     285 
Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1.  To  determine  the  best  kind  of  soil  for  potatoes.    By  inquiry 
and  observation  learn  the  kinds  of  soil  in  which  potatoes  are 
grown  in  your  neighborhood.     If  you  find  that  some  are  grown 
in  different  soils,  find  out  which  gives  the  biggest  yield.     If  pota- 
toes are  not  grown  at  all  in  your  locality,  find  the  reason  why. 

2.  To  determine  what  vegetables  may  be  grown  successfully  as 
border  plants.    In  your  visits  to  gardens  note  what  vegetables 
are  used  as  border  plants ;   that  is,  what  vegetables  are  planted 
outside  the  main  gardening  area.     For  example,  in  one  garden 
you  may  find  a  double  row  of  asparagus  along  the  fence.    This 
arrangement  does  not  interfere  with  the  cultivation  of  the  garden, 
and  the  plants  form  a  pleasing  background.     What  other  plants 
do  you  find  grown  in  this  way  ? 

3.  To  determine  the  best  time  to  plant  the  various  crops.    Talk 
with  gardeners  about  the  best  time  to  plant  each  crop.    Take 
special  note  of  what  the  older,  more  experienced  gardeners  tell 
you.     If  you  find  that  some  go  by  the  condition  of  the  trees,  shrubs 
or  flowers,  make  notes  of  the  information  given  you. 


CHAPTER  EIGHTEEN 

DISEASES   OF  PLANTS 

As  a  Blight  is  the  most  common  and  dangerous  Distemper 
that  Plants  are  subject  to,  so  I  shall  endeavour  to  explain 
by  what  Means  Vegetables  are  affected  by  it ;  and  if  I  shall 
be  so  happy,  from  the  Observations  I  have  made,  to  dis- 
cover the  Cause  of  it,  the  Remedy  may  then  be  more  easily 
found  out,  and  the  Gardener  will  with  more  certainty  hope 
for  Success  from  his  Care  and  Labour. 

From  an  Old  English  Garden  Book  (1726) 

ALL  the  vegetables  of  the  garden  are  plants  that 
have  roots,  stems,  and  leaves.  Each  of  these  parts  has 
different  work  to  do  ;  and  in  the  plants  there  are  vessels 
to  carry  water,  minerals,  and  foods  between  the  different 
parts. 

The  garden  plants  all  have  chlorophyll,  a  green  color- 
ing matter  which  makes  them  able  to  use  the  energy  of 
the  sunlight  in  building  food.  They  are,  therefore,  self- 
supporting  ;  they  can  make  their  own  food  from  carbon 
dioxid  taken  from  the  air,  and  from  water  and  minerals 
taken  from  the  soil.  As  we  have  learned  in  earlier 
chapters,  this  is  one  of  the  main  reasons  why  they  are  so 
valuable  to  man  as  food  plants. 

The  garden  plants  also  produce  seeds,  which  usually 
pass  through  a  resting  period  before  the  young  plants 
resume  growth.  In  this  way  the  plants  that  live  but 
one  year  are  able  to  pass  the  winter  months. 

In  all  these  respects  garden  plants  are  like  the  many 
kinds  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs  that  are  abundant  and 
conspicuous  all  about  us.  Because  of  these  qualities, 
and  especially  because  of  their  power  to  produce  seeds, 
these  plants  are  considered  to  be  the  higher  forms  of 

plant  life. 

286 


Diseases  of  Plants  287 

Lower  forms  of  plant  life.  But  all  about  us  are  many 
sorts  of  plants  that  never  produce  flowers  and  seeds. 
The  simplest  form  of  these  seedless  plants  have  no  roots, 
stems,  or  leaves.  Some  are  so  small  that  we  cannot 
see  them  with  the  naked  eye.  Many  of  these  seedless 
plants  have  no  green  coloring  matter  and  hence  are  not 
able  to  make  their  own  sugary  foods.  These  colorless 
(not  green)  and  seedless  little  plants  are  all  about  us, 
and  they  affect,  our  crops  in  so  many  ways  that  we  need 
to  learn  about  them. 

Plants  without  green  coloring  matter.  The  fungi 
(singular,  fungus)  are  a  great  group  of  colorless  and 
seedless  plants.  Mushrooms,  puffballs,  molds,  and  the 
bracket  fungi  (found  on  trees)  are  members  of  this 
group.  Although  some  are  quite  large,  they  are  all 
composed  of  single  filaments  of  cells  or  groups  of  such 
filaments  and  have  no  leaves,  stems,  roots,  or  flowers 
and  no  special  conducting  vessels  within  them.  The 
fungi  produce  great  numbers  of  small  spores  that,  when 
scattered  abroad,  start  the  new  plants. 

The  yeasts  and  bacteria  are  other  examples  of  color- 
less and  seedless  plants.  In  these  the  plant  consists  of 
but  a  single  cell.  The  yeasts  multiply  by  budding ;  the 
bacteria,  by  simple  division.  Some  of  the  yeasts  and 
bacteria  produce  spores  that  can  withstand  drying  and  a 
high  temperature  without  injury.  Some  vegetables  are 
difficult  to  can  so  that  they  will  keep,  because  they  carry 
bacterial  spores  that  are  killed  only  by  steaming  under 
pressure  or  by  a  long  period  of  boiling. 

Parasites.  A  colorless  plant  cannot  make  its  own  food, 
but,  like  an  animal,  it  must  have  food  that  is  already 


288  Gardening 

prepared.  Some  of  these  plants,  such  as  the  mushrooms 
and  bread  mold,  use  dead  plant  or  animal  material  for 
food.  Others  feed  directly  on  living  plants  or  animals. 
These  are  called  parasites,  and  the  plant  or  animal  on 
which  the  parasite  feeds  is  called  the  host. 

Parasitic  diseases  of  plants.  Many  diseases  of  gar- 
den plants  are  due  to  the  attacks  of  parasitic  plants 
such  as  the  rusts,  smuts,  and  mildews.  Most  blights 
and  rots  are  caused  by  fungi ;  but  some  of  them,  and 
also  many  other  plant  diseases,  are  due  to  bacteria. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  forty  or  fifty  years  that  the 
cause  of  these  diseases  has  ceased  to  be  a  mystery.  The 
host  plants  become  sickly,  and  even  die  suddenly ;  but 
because  of  their  small  size,  the  parasites  are  not  even 
seen  with  the  naked  eye.  But  the  invention  of  the 
microscope  enabled  man  to  see  these  small  parasitic 
plants ;  consequently  much  is  now  known  of  the 
various  parasites  that  cause  plant  diseases  and  how  to 
control  them. 

The  gardener  can  learn  to  recognize  many  of  these 
diseases  by  such  signs  as  spots  or  blotches  on  the  leaves, 
by  the  occurrence  of  powdery  or  moldy  growth,  or  by  the 
decay  or  rotting  of  parts.  Just  as  the  physician,  without 
seeing  the  germs,  recognizes  whooping  cough  or  measles 
from  the  symptoms  of  the  patient,  so  the  gardener  can 
learn  to  recognize  plant  diseases  by  the  condition  of  the 
host  plants. 

The  diseases  discussed  below  are  selected  to  illustrate 
the  various  sorts  of  parasites  that  are  likely  to  appear 
on  crops  in  the  home  vegetable  garden,  and  to  give  also  a 
knowledge  of  the  diseases  that  are  most  destructive  to 


Diseases  of  Plants 


289 


R.  F.  Poole,  N.  J.  Expt.  Sta. 
FIG.  164.     Cabbage  plants  badly  infected  with  the  club  root  disease. 

such  crops  and  of  the  various  means  that  are  employed 
in  combating  them. 

CLUBROOT   OF   CABBAGE 

All  the  members  of  the  cabbage  group,  as  well  as 
turnips,  radishes,  rutabagas,  and  mustards,  serve  as  the 
hosts  of  a  parasite  which  causes  a  disease  known  as  club- 
root.  This  disease  is  especially  common  in  cabbage  over 
most  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
Young  plants  are  often  attacked  in  the  seed  bed.  They 
become  stunted  and  sickly  and  seldom  grow  to  maturity. 
They  wilt  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  The  roots  soon 
become  greatly  swollen  and  misshapen.  This  condition 
leads  the  gardener  to  speak  of  the  disease  as  the  club- 


2  QO  Gardening 

root ;  but  it  is  also  known  as  "  clubfoot  "  or  the  "  finger 
and  toe  "  disease. 

The  fungus  causing  this  disease  lives,  during  one  stage 
of  its  life,  in  the  soil.  It  enters  the  roots  of  its  host, 
and  multiplies  by  a  simple  kind  of  budding  process. 
After  a  period  of  feeding,  during  which  the  host  becomes 
greatly  weakened,  many  spores  are  produced  by  the 
fungus  within  the  roots.  Later,  when  the  roots  of  the 
dead  host  decay,  these  spores  become  mingled  with  the 
soil.  Under  proper  conditions,  which  usually  occur 
during  early  spring,  they  germinate  and  infest  plants  of 
the  new  crop. 

Means  of  control.  All  diseased  plants  should  be  dug 
up  and  burned,  care  being  taken  to  get  all  the  roots  out 
of  the  soil.  If  the  disease  appears  in  cold  frames  or 
hotbeds,  one  must  remove  and  discard  all  the  soil,  and 
thoroughly  clean  out  flats  and  frames  before  using  for 
another  year.  The  destruction  of  diseased  plants  and 
the  cleaning  of  frames  is  one  of  the  first  remedies  to 
use  in  preventing  the  disease. 

A  second  method  of  combating  the  disease  is  to  plant 
in  the  infected  soil  crops  not  attacked  by  it.  Do  not 
grow  cabbage  on  ground  where  cabbage  was  attacked  the  pre- 
vious year,  and  do  not  use  soil  from  infected  areas  to  grow 
seedlings  of  cabbage.  If  the  disease  appears  in  an  early 
crop,  do  not  plant  a  late  crop  of  cabbage  in  the  same 
earth,  but  use  this  space  for  late  crops  of  some  vege- 
table that  is  not  subject  to  the  disease,  such  as  endive 
or  celery. 

As  the  fungus  thrives  best  in  an  acid  soil,  the  appli- 
cation of  lime  to  the  land  helps  in  controlling  the  disease. 


Diseases  of  Plants  291 

The  root-knot  disease,  which  is  caused  by  small  "  eel- 
worms,"  may  be  confused  with  the  clubroot  disease,  in  the 
southern  states  especially.  The  worms  infest  the  roots 
and  produce  swellings,  but  these  are  smaller  than  the 
swellings  of  the  clubroot.  By  breaking  open  the  swollen 
roots,  one  may  often  detect  pearly  white  bodies  about 
the  size  of  a  pin  head ;  these  are  the  female  eelworms. 

To  combat  this  animal  parasite,  practice  crop  rotation, 
destroy  all  diseased  plants,  and  clean  the  frames  and  flats, 
as  is  recommended  for  the  clubroot. 

BACTERIAL   WILT   OF   VINE    CROPS 

This  disease  is  caused  by  a  bacterium  that  lives 
within  the  woody  vessels  which  carry  sap  up  to  the  leaves. 
This  parasite  is  so  minute  that  many  thousands  of  them 
can  live  together  within  a  single  cell  of  the  host  plant. 
In  time,  the  vessels  are  broken  down  and  cavities  formed 
within  the  host.  The  supply  of  water  is  thus  checked, 
and  the  plant  suddenly  wilts  and  soon  dies.  There  is  no 
recovery  and  no  cure  for  plants  after  the  germs  once  get 
inside. 

The  minute  germs  of  this  disease  are  carried  from 
diseased  plants  to  healthy  ones  by  the  striped  cucumber 
beetle.  This  insect  chews  into  diseased  plants  and  gets 
the  bacteria  on  its  mouth  parts  ;  then  when  it  chews  into 
healthy  plants,  the  bacteria  gain  an  entrance. 

The  best  measures  of  prevention  are :  (i)  to  destroy 
and  combat  the  striped  beetle,  and  (2)  to  burn  all  plants 
as  soon  as  they  become  infected. 

The  various  vine  crops  also  wilt  suddenly  and  die  when 
attacked  by  the  grub  of  the  stalk  borer,  but  in  this  case 


29  2  Gardening 

proper  examination  will  reveal  the  grubs  burrowing  in  the 
stem  near  the  base  of  the  plant  (page  333) . 

Plants  may  also  wilt  badly  from  lack  of  water.  One 
needs  to  recognize  the  various  conditions  that  cause  wilt- 
ing before  deciding  that  the  bacterial  wilt  is  present. 

Muskmelons,  watermelons,  cucumbers,  and  squashes 
are  all  subject  to  attacks  of  this  disease  at  any  time  during 
their  growth.  It  is  now  a  common  and  a  very  serious 
disease  of  vine  crops  in  the  United  States. 

OTHER    BACTERIAL   DISEASES    OF    GARDEN    CROPS 

A  wilt  disease  of  potatoes,  tomatoes,  and  eggplants 
caused  by  a  bacterium  is  especially  destructive  in  the 
southern  states. 

A  soft  rot  of  the  carrot  and  other  vegetables  is  a  com- 
mon and  widespread  disease  and  is 'caused  by  another 
bacterium. 

A  bean  blight,  caused  by  a  bacterium,  is  common  on 
both  the  kidney  and  the  Lima  bean.  Its  presence  is 
readily  detected  by  the  occurrence  of  water-soaked 
patches  or  swellings  that  appear  in  the  stems,  leaves,  and 
green  pods.  The  disease  is  seed-borne  and  there  is  no 
effective  control,  except  the  use  of  seed  from  healthy 
plants.  However,  treatment  of  diseased  seed  is  some- 
what effective  in  preventing  this  disease. 

Before  planting,  soak  the  seed  in  a  solution  of  mercuric 
bichlorid  (i  part  to  1000  parts  of  water)  for  15  minutes ; 
then  rinse  or  wash  in  pure  water,  after  which  spread 
out  the  seeds  to  dry.  This  kills  the  bacteria  that  are 
being  carried  on  the  seeds.  As  the  solution  attacks 


Diseases  of  Plants  293 

metal  vessels,  an  earthenware  dish  should  be  used. 
Mercuric  bichlorid  is  a  deadly  poison  and  should  not  be 
used  by  children. 

A  "  black  rot  "  of  cabbage  (also  called  "  brown  rot," 
"  stem  rot,"  and  "  dry  rot  ")  is  caused  by  a  bacterium. 
Young  plants  are  killed  ;  older  ones  lose  their  leaves  and 
become  rotted.  As  young  plants  may  become  infected 
in  flats  or  in  seed  beds,  these  should  be  watched.  Any 
plants  showing  signs  of  the  black  rot  should  be  de- 
stroyed. The  disease  is  seed-borne ;  hence  it  is  advis- 
able always  to  disinfect  seeds  of  cabbage  with  mercuric 
bichlorid  as  directed  above  for  destroying  the  germs  of 
bean  blight. 

All  the  diseases  mentioned  above  are  combated  by 
destroying  diseased  plants,  by  keeping  flats  and  frames 
clean,  and  by  crop  rotation. 

THE   DOWNY   MILDEW   OF   THE   CUCUMBER 

Through  the  eastern  and  the  southern  states  the 
downy  mildew  is  a  very  destructive  disease  of  the  cu- 
cumber and  of  all  the  vine  crops  related  to  it.  The  first 
sign  of  attack  is  the  appearance  of  yellowish  spots  on  the 
leaves.  These  rapidly  enlarge  until  the  leaves  are  almost 
or  entirely  yellow  or  brown,  when  they  soon  die.  The 
older  leaves  are  attacked  first,  and  the  disease  progresses 
toward  the  tips  of  the  vines  until  the  plants  are  either 
killed  or  very  much  stunted. 

The  disease  is  due  to  a  fungus,  which  cannot  itself  be 
detected  with  the  naked  eye.  But  an  examination  of  the 
discolored  areas  under  a  microscope  will  reveal  colorless, 
branched,  and  thread-like  stalks  of  the  fungus  pro- 


294 


Gardening 


FIG.  165. 


Cucumber  vines  destroyed  by  bacterial  wilt.     A  week  before  this 
picture  was  taken  the  vines  were  growing  vigorously. 


truding  through  the  breathing  pores  on  the  under  sur- 
faces of  the  leaves  and  extending  out  into  the  air.  Very 
small  spores  are  borne  on  the  ends  of  these  branches. 
When  the  spores  are  mature,  they  readily  become  sep- 
arated from  the  stalk  and  may  be  borne  long  distances  by 
the  wind.  If,  by  chance,  a  spore  lodges  on  a  cucumber 
leaf  (or  the  leaf  of  a  melon  or  squash),  it  gives  rise  to 
thread-like  filaments  which  may  grow  through  a  breath- 
ing pore  into  the  interior  of  a  leaf.  Here  the  fungus 
feeds  from  the  living  cells  of  the  host,  becomes  mature 
itself,  and  sends  out  into  the  air  branches  which  bear 
spores  for  another  germination. 

The  parasite,  therefore,  lives  within  the  leaf.  It 
is  outside  on  the  surface  of  the  plant  for  only  a  short 
time  previous  to  gaining  entrance,  and  also  when  a  part 
of  the  fungus  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  the  short  time  that 
the  spores  are  being  shed. 


Diseases  of  Plants  295 

Controlling  fungous  diseases  with  poison.  Poisons 
which  kill  fungi  are  called  fungicides.  The  best-known 
and  most  valuable  fungicide  is  Bordeaux  mixture.  The 
standard  formula  for  this  fungicide  is  known  as  the 
"  4-4-50  formula,"  so  called  because  it  is  made  from  4 
pounds  of  copper  sulfate,  4  pounds  of  fresh  slaked  lime 
(or  5  pounds  hydrated  lime),  and  50  gallons  of  water. 

For  the  home  garden,  a  smaller  amount  of  the  material 
is  usually  sufficient  for  all  needs,  and  it  can  be  made  in 
the  same  proportions,  as  follows : 

Prepare  separately  two  stock  solutions  which  we  will 
call  A  and  B.  To  make  solution  A,  inclose  2  pounds  of 
copper  sulfate  in  a  cloth  bag,  and  hang  it  in  a  vessel  con- 
taining 2  gallons  of  water.  A  metal  bucket  will  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  solution ;  so  a  wooden  or  glazed  earthen- 
ware vessel  must  be  used.  The  bag  containing  copper 
sulfate  should  be  hung  in  the  upper  part  of  the  water  and 
not  allowed  to  touch  the  bottom  or  sides  of  the  vessel. 

To  make  solution  B,  prepare  a  lime  paste  either  by 
slaking  2  pounds  of  fresh  stone  lime  in  water  or  by  adding 
2 f  pounds  of  hydrated  lime  to  water.  Then  add  water  to 
make  2  gallons.  This  solution  also  must  be  made  and 
kept  in  an  earthen  or  wooden  vessel. 

These  stock  solutions  may  be  kept  for  use  throughout 
the  summer,  but  the  vessels  should  be  kept  tightly 
covered  to  prevent  evaporation  of  water  and  to  keep  dust 
out.  As  some  water  will  evaporate,  it  is  well  to  mark  the 
height  of  the  liquid  after  each  use  of  the  stock,  and  then 
add  water  to  fill  to  this  height  just  before  the  stock  is 
again  used.  In  this  way  the  proper  strength  of  the  sojih 
tion  is  maintained. 


296 


Gardening 


As  it  is  seldom  that  the  home  gardener  will  wish  to 
use  more  than  3  gallons  of  spray  at  one  time,  this  amount 
can  be  made  up  from  the  stock  as  follows : 


A 


2  Ibs.  copper  sulfate 
Suspended  in  aclotH 
bag  in  2 gals. of 
cold  water 


Mix  1  qt.  solution  A  with 
2;/2  gals,  water;  add  1  qt.  -D 
!L  solution  B 


2  Ibs.  stone  lime  or 
273  Ibs.hydrated  lime 

made  into  paste; 

add  2  gals,  water 


Keep  covered  \  Keep  covered 

Strain  and  use 
at  once  in  spray 

FIG.  1 66.    Diagram  showing  how  Bordeaux  mixture  is  made  up. 


Stir  the  stock  solutions  thoroughly.  Place  i  quart 
of  solution  A  in  a  wooden  pail  or  glazed  earthenware 
vessel  which  holds  not  less  than  4  gallons.  Add  2§  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  mix  well. 

Next,  add  i  quart  of  stock  solution  B,  and  stir 
thoroughly.  Then  strain  the  mixture  through  cheese- 
cloth into  the  tank  of  the  spray  pump,  and  use  imme- 
diately. If  a  smaller  amount  of  Bordeaux  mixture  is 
needed,  one-half  the  amounts  mentioned  may  be  mixed 
for  use.  Or,  if  only  a  very  small  amount  is  needed  for  a 
single  application,  it  can  be  made  by  using  4  ounces  of 
copper  sulfate  dissolved  in  6  quarts  of  water  and  4 
ounces  quicklime  (or  5!  ounces  hydrated  lime)  slaked 


Diseases  of  Plants 


297 


and  then  dissolved  in  6  quarts  of  water.  When  the  lime 
is  well  dissolved  mix  the  two  solutions,  strain,  and  use 
immediately. 

Weaker  solutions,  such  as  a  2-4-50  formula,  are  often 
prepared  for  use  on 
young  plants  and  on 
tender  crops  that  are 
injured  by  the  stronger 
solutions. 

Sometimes  the  lime 
is  of  poor  quality  or  has 
lost  its  strength,  or  the 
copper  may  be  so  strong 
that  it  "  burns  "  leaves 
that  it  touches.  The 
solution  may  be  tested 
as  follows :  Dip  a  clean, 
bright  steel  knife  blade 
into  the  prepared  solu- 
tion for  30  seconds.  If 
it  is  "  coppery  "  in  color 
when  removed,  there  is 
not  enough  lime,  and 
lime  water  should  be 
added  until  the  knife 
blade  does  not  "  cop- 
per "  when  tested. 

When  this  poison  is 
sprayed  on  the  surface  of 


C7.  S.  D.  A. 

The  proper  way  to    carry   a 


FIG.  167. 

compressed-air  sprayer  of  the  knapsack 
leaves      it  kills    the    ger-     tyPe-    The  strap  goes  over  the  left  shoulder, 
.          and  the  tank  is  partially  supported  by  the 

minating    spores   which    right  hand. 


298  Gardening 

may  be  present.  It  will  not  destroy  the  fungus  after  it 
has  gained  entrance  to  the  inside  of  the  leaf,  however. 
Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  can  therefore  only 
prevent  the  appearance  and  spread  of  the  disease ;  it 
cannot  cure  diseased  plants.  Cucumber  growers  who 
plant  on  a  large  acreage  do  not  wait  for  the  disease 
caused  by  downy  mildew  to  appear,  but  spray  about 
seven  times  during  the  growing  of  the  crop.  The  home 
gardener  should  at  least  begin  spraying  as  soon  as  he  de- 
tects signs  of  disease.  If,  however,  the  disease  has  been 
present  in  previous  years  or  is  known  to  be  in  the  lo- 
cality, it  is  advisable  to  begin  spraying  as  soon  as  the 
cucumber  plants  are  well  above  the  ground,  and  to 
spray  thereafter  at  intervals  of  about  10  days.  If  rains 
occur  soon  after  spraying,  much  of  the  poison  will  be 
washed  from  the  leaves ;  it  will  then  be  necessary  to 
spray  again  immediately. 

LEAF   BLIGHT    OR    LEAF    SPOT   OF   THE   TOMATO 

It  is  estimated  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  that  the  tomato-leaf  blight  causes  a  loss  to 
tomato  growers  in  the  United  States  of  at  least  $5,000,000 
each  year ;  yet  this  loss  could  largely  be  prevented  if  the 
growers  would  learn  to  recognize  the  symptoms  of  the 
disease  and  to  spray  properly  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

The  fungus  which  causes  this  disease  attacks  the  lower 
leaves  first.  Small  angular  or  circular  spots  appear, 
having  grayish  or  light-colored  centers  and  dark-colored 
borders.  These  spots  are  seldom  more  than  J  inch  in 
diameter.  Leaves  thus  attacked  curl,  and  then  dry  and 
fall.  As  the  disease  continues  to  extend  to  the  newer 


Diseases  of  Plants  299 

leaves,  the  plants  may  in  a  short  time  become  almost 
leafless.  In  such  a  condition  the  plants  will  produce 
few  or  no  fruits. 

In  the  center  of  the  discolored  spots,  small  dark  dots 
or  pustules  may  be  found.  These  are  cistern-like  cavities 
in  which  countless  spores  are  produced.  Around  the 
spores  is  a  material  which  when  wet  becomes  jelly-like 
and  swells,  pushing  the  spores  in  sticky  clusters  out  of  the 
opening  of  the  case.  They  will  cling  to  insects  and  to 
the  hands  of  the  gardener,  and  thus  become  distributed. 
Rain  may  splash  spores  from  leaf  to  leaf  and  from  plant 
to  plant.  Spores  which  fall  to  the  ground  will  withstand 
severe  drying  for  at  least  three  days,  during  which  time 
they  may  be  blown  about  with  the  dust.  Many  gar- 
deners quite  naturally  make  the  mistake  of  thinking 
that  the  disease  is  caused  by  wet  weather,  but  the  wet 
weather  simply  favors  the  spread  of  the  parasite. 

Control  of  this  disease  is  effected  largely  by  preven- 
tive measures.  Clean  soil  should  be  used  in  flats  and 
cold  frames  in  which  seedlings  are  started.  The  spores 
live  over  winter  on  stems  and  leaves  of  old  plants  ;  hence 
the  dead  remains  of  all  tomato  plants  should  be  burned  in 
autumn.  The  spread  of  the  disease  can  be  checked  by 
spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  (4-4-50  formula)  at 
intervals  of  about  10  days,  or  more  often  during  rainy 
weather.  At  the  first  signs  of  this  disease  the  gardener 
should  tie  up  plants  to  stakes,  remove  and  burn  the  lower 
and  infected  leaves  which  are  wilting  and  showing 
blotches,  and  then  spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  All 
this  work,  as  well  as  that  of  cultivation,  should  be  done 
when  the  plants  are  dry. 


\ 


300 


Gardening 


THE   DAMPING-OFF   DISEASE 


Several  kinds  of  fungi  attack  young  seedlings  and  cause 
them  to  topple  over  and  die.  Heavy  losses  from  this 
cause  often  occur  in  seed  beds  and  cold  frames.  Usually 
all  the  plants  in  an  area  are  attacked  and  killed,  leaving 
bare  patches.  In  some  cases  the  plants  survive  until 
they  are  placed  in  the  field,  but  even  then  they  grow 
poorly  and  often  die. 

The  fungi  which  cause  damping  off  can  live  on  decay- 
ing organic  matter  in  the  soil,  they  can  attack  the  living 
tissues  of  seedlings,  and  they  can  continue  to  feed  on  the 
plants  after  they  are  dead.  Certain  of  these  fungi  are 
practically  always  present  in  soil  which  is  rich  in  organic 


FIG.  1 68.     Lettuce  seedlings  affected  with  the  damping-off  disease.    The  plants 
just  above  the  center  of  the  picture  are  falling  down  and  rotting. 


Diseases  of  Plants 


materials.  Their  growth  is 
favored  by  an  abundance 
of  moisture  and  warmth. 

The  prevention  of  damp- 
ing off  depends  largely  on 
the  use  of  proper  methods  in 
growing  seedlings.  Do  not 
use  soil  so  rich  that  the  plants 
are  forced  too  rapidly.  Give 
the  seedlings  space,  both  by 
proper  sowing  and  by  prompt 
thinning  and  transplanting. 
Supply  water  only  according 
to  the  needs  of  the  plants; 
mix  sand  with  the  soil  to 
help  the  drainage  ;  regulate 
the  temperature  and  venti- 
late the  frames  to  harden 
the  seedlings.  With  such 
precautions,  damping  off  will 

Seldom      be     SerioUS. 


R.  F.  Poole,  N.  J.  Expt.  Sta. 

If  it  TIG.  169.  Portion  of  a  corn  plant 
badly  infected  with  corn  smut.  The 
diseased  parts  or  the  entire  diseased 


anr>psrQin  flat*    HkrarH    the     badly  infected  with  corn  smut.    The 
natS>  a  '     diseased  parts  or  the  entire  di 

entire  flat  and  plant  new  plants  should  be  cut  off  and  de- 
seeds in  less  rich  soil,  or 

select  healthy  plants  from  uninfected  parts  of  the  flat 
and  transplant  them  to  a  new  flat  with  fresh  earth  less 
rich  in  humus. 

CORN   SMUT 

One  can  readily  detect  the  presence  of  this  fungus,  be- 
cause of  the  prominent  and  sometimes  enormous  swell- 


3° 2  Gardening 


R.  F.  Poole.  N.  J.  Expt.  Sta. 

FIG.  170.     Bean  pods  infected  with  bean  anthracnose.    The  diseased  portions 
often  extend  through  the  walls  of  the  pod  and  affect  the  seed  within. 


ings  produced.  These  somewhat  rounded  but  irregularly 
shaped  enlargements  may  appear  on  leaves,  stalk,  tassel, 
or  ears.  At  first,  the  outside  of  these  swellings  is  glis- 
tening white,  but  later  the  mass  breaks  up  into  black 
powdery  substances,  largely  composed  of  minute  spores. 
These  spores  live  over  winter  and  lead  to  the  infection  of 
growing  plants  the  next  year.  The  filaments  of  the  fun- 
gus gain  entrance  anywhere  in  the  growing  parts,  espe- 
cially through  wounds.  The  fungus  grows  rapidly,  and 
the  parts  in  which  it  feeds  become  enlarged  and  greatly 
distorted.  The  effect  of  this  fungus  differs  very  much 
from  that  of  such  a  fungus  as  the  downy  mildew  of  the. 
cucumber,  which  kills  tissues  and  does  not  first  cause 
them  to  become  enlarged. 

To  prevent  the  spread  of  this  smut,  do  not  allow  any 
pustules  to  mature  and  shed  their  spores.     Cut  out  the 


Diseases  of  Plants 


303 


/i.  F.  PooZe,  AT.  J.  -Ezp*.  5«a. 

FIG.  171.     Bean  seeds  showing  anthracnose  spots.    If  these  seeds  are  planted, 
the  disease  will  be  transmitted  to  the  plants  of  the  next  crop, 
u 


swellings  when  they  are 
destroy  them  by  burning. 


green  "  and  immature,  and 


BEAN   ANTHRACNOSE 

The  most  common  and  perhaps  the  most  destructive  of 
the  diseases  that  attack  varieties  of  the  common  or  kid- 
ney bean  is  the  disease  known  as  bean  anthracnose.  It  is 
nearly  always  present  on  some  varieties.  The  fungus  at- 
tacks pods,  stems,  leaves,  and  even  roots,  causing  dis- 
colored blotches  to  appear.  On  the  pods  these  first  appear 
as  small,  dark-colored  spots  which  soon  increase  in  size,  be- 
coming quite  conspicuous.  They  are  usually  somewhat 
circular  and  black  or  rusty,  but  may  be  pinkish  at  certain 
stages.  These  "  cankers,"  as  they  are  called,  become 
sunken  and  dry  and  hard.  It  is  in  these  areas  that  the 
fungus  is  living.  Spores  are  produced  on  the  surface  of 
the  canker ;  and  as  these  are  sticky  when  wet,  they  are 


304  Gardening 

easily  spread,  much  in  the  same  way  as  the  spores  of  the 
tomato-leaf  blight  are  spread.  The  filaments  of  the 
fungus  penetrate  to  the  interior  of  the  pod  and  infest 
the  seeds,  and  here  they  may  remain,  ready  to  thrive 
on  the  young  plant  when  the  seed  germinates. 

Control.  Do  not  cultivate  or  hoe  the  crop,  or  pick 
the  pods  when  the  plants  are  wet  from  rain  or  dew,  as 
this  spreads  the  spores  from  plant  to  plant.  Burn  all 
badly  infected  plants  and  destroy  the  vines  of  others  as 
soon  as  the  crop  of  pods  is  harvested.  This  helps  to 
check  the  spread  of  the  disease  to  later  crops. 

The  chief  means  of  prevention  is  through  seed  selec- 
tion. The  fungus  is  carried  over  winter  on  the  seed,  and 
the  very  first  leaves  (the  seed  leaves  or  cotyledons)  may 
already  have  the  fungus  present  in  the  seed.  Do  not  save 
seed  from  infected  pods.  This  is  one  of  the  seed-borne 
diseases  whose  presence  can  often  be  detected  with  the 
unaided  eye.  Examine  carefully  the  seed  that  is  bought 
for  planting,  and  reject  all  seeds  that  show  dark  or  red- 
dish spots  indicating  the  cankers  of  the  fungus.  Seed 
treatment  with  fungicides  has  not  thus  far  proved  success- 
ful in  controlling  this  fungus.  The  filaments  penetrate 
deeply  into  the  embryo  itself,  and  a  treatment  which 
destroys  the  fungus  also  usually  kills  the  embryo. 

PREVENTING   PLANT   DISEASES 

From  the  above  discussion  of  the  diseases  typical  of 
plants  grown  in  the  vegetable  garden,  it  will  be  evident 
to  the  reader  that  there  is  no  one  means  of  control  suitable 
for  all  diseases.  The  best  method  to  use  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  way  the  particular  fungus  lives  and  how  it 


Diseases  of  Plants  305 

attacks  its  host.  Most  measures  of  control  aim  to  pre- 
vent the  appearance  of  a  disease,  or  at  least  to  check  its 
spread  after  it  has  appeared.  In  general,  the  various 
methods  which  are  employed  and  which  have  been  noted 
above  may  be  grouped  in  the  following  classes : 

(1)  Sanitary    measures.     The    remains    of    diseased 
plants  often  contain  countless  numbers  of  the  spores  of 
the  fungus  or  of  the  bacterium  causing  the  disease.     To 
leave  such  plant  refuse  scattered  about  the  garden  or  in 
piles  about  the  border  often  assists  the  fungus  or  bac- 
terium to  live  over  winter,  and  thus  invites  a  reappear- 
ance of  the  disease.     On  this  account  the  garden  should 
be  kept  clear  of  plant  refuse,  and  the  remains  of  plants 
known  to  be  infected  should  never  be  used  in  a  humus 
pile.     Hotbeds,  cold  frames,  and  flats  should   be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  out  at  the  end  of  the  season ;  and  they 
should  be  sprayed  or  sprinkled  with  weak  solutions  of 
formaldehyde.     Sanitary  measures  are  as  desirable  for 
the  garden  as  for  the  household. 

(2)  Crop  rotation.     Through  rotation  in  the  planting 
of  crops  it  is  often  possible  to  kill  out  the  fungus  by  not 
planting  a  crop  that  serves  as  a  host  for  it.     This  is 
especially  the  case  when  a  parasitic  fungus  lives,  in  some 
form  or  other,  for  a  considerable  time  in  the  soil  where 
the  best  sanitary  measures  are  of  little  avail.     In  larger 
gardens  and  on  a  farm,  various  crops  can  be  shifted  to 
different  locations  from  year  to  year.     In  a  small  garden 
there  is  less  chance  to  practice  crop  rotation.     But  even 
here  it  can  be  practiced  to  some  extent.     For  example, 
late  cabbage  should  not  be  planted  in  soil  on  which  an 
early  crop  showed  infection  with  the  clubroot  disease. 


306  Gardening 

(3)  Seed  treatment.     The   aim   of   this   method   of 
disease  prevention  is  to  destroy  the  parasites  that  exist 
in  some  form  either  on  or  in  the  seeds.     Soaking  seed  in 
hot  water  or  in  solutions  of  certain  chemicals  will  often 
kill  these  parasites.     There  is,  however,  danger  of  in- 
juring the  seeds,  especially  if  they  are  allowed  to  soak  too 
long  or  if  they  are  not  properly  dried  afterward.     The 
treatment  most  effective  differs  widely  according  to  the 
kind  of  seed  and  the  kind  of  fungus.     Seed  treatment  is 
useless  when  seeds  are  planted  in  infected  soil.     Corrosive 
sublimate,  sometimes  used  in  seed  treatment,  is  a  deadly 
poison.     Formaldehyde  is  extremely  irritating  to  the 
skin  and  to  the  nose  and  eyes.     Seed  treatment  should 
not  be  undertaken  by  the  beginner  in  gardening  without 
considerable  study  of  the  literature  and  without  a  spe- 
cial demonstration  or  study  of  the  methods.     Children 
should  never  attempt  the  work  alone. 

(4)  Fungicides.     The    use    of    fungicides,    of    which 
Bordeaux  mixture  has  already  been  mentioned,  has  now 
become  very  general  in  combating  various  fungous  dis- 
eases.    This  aims  chiefly  to  destroy  the  fungus  at  the 
time  it  is  gaining  entrance  to  the  leaves.    The  chemicals 
applied  stick  to  the  leaves  after  the  surface  becomes 
dry.     When  the  leaves  become  wet  from  dew  or  rain, 
the  poisons  are  dissolved  in   the   films   of  water   that 
cover  the  leaves.     The  poison  is    therefore  present  to 
destroy  spores  which  may  lodge  and  germinate  in   the 
water.     Sooner  or  later   the  poisons   which   were  ap- 
plied are  washed  from  the  plant;    therefore  the  gar- 
dener must  spray  repeatedly,  and  most  often  when  dis- 
eases are  especially  destructive  or  the  weather  rainy. 


Diseases  of  Plants 


307 


Univ.  of  Wis.  Agrtc.  Ex-pt. 


FIG.  172.    In  a  field  of  cabbage  that  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  yellows, 
a  plant  that  had  formed  a  good  head  was  found.    This  plant  was  saved  for  seed. 

The  most  successful  truck  growers  often  spray  crops 
subject  to  diseases  that  can  be  thus  controlled,  whether 
disease  is  present  or  not.  They  do  this  to  prevent  any 
appearance  of  disease.  The  home  gardener  should  be 
prepared  to  use  fungicides  whenever  diseases  appear  that 
can  be  thus  controlled.  Children  should  not  be  intrusted 
with  the  task,  but  should  have  the  help  of  some  older 
person,  as  a  parent,  teacher,  supervisor  of  garden  work, 
or  scoutmaster. 

(5)  Varieties  resistant  to  disease.  Sometimes  certain 
plants  of  a  crop  are  able  to  resist  the  attacks  of  a  parasite, 
while  the  greater  number  of  sister  plants  all  about 
suffer  or  die.  If  seed  is  saved  from  these  more  resistant 
plants,  a  highly  resistant  variety  may  be  obtained. 
The  work  of  developing  such  resistant  strains  is  best 


308 


Gardening 


Univ.  of  Wis.  Agric.  Expt.  Sta. 

FIG.  173.  The  rows  of  cabbage  at  the  right  were  grown  from  seed  from  re- 
sistant stock.  They  have  inherited  the  power  of  the  parent  plants  to  resist  the 
disease.  The  plants  on  the  left  are  from  ordinary  seed. 

conducted  by  agricultural  experiment  stations  or  by  seed 
firms  that  produce  seeds  on  a  large  scale.  However,  the 
home  gardener  may  secure  seed,  whenever  available,  of 
desirable  varieties  known  to  be  resistant  to  certain 
diseases.  When  a  disease  tends  to  reappear  year  after 
year,  resistant  varieties  are  especially  valuable.  For 
example,  the  fungus  that  causes  the  "  yellows  "  of  cab- 
bage is  believed  to  persist  in  infected  soil  for  a  number 
of  years,  and  the  growing  of  cabbages  in  such  soil  is  only 
possible  when  one  uses  seed  of  plants  that  are  resistant 
to  this  disease  (see  Figs.  172  and  173). 


Whenever  any  noticeable  and  markedly  injurious  fun- 
gous disease  or  insect  (see  next  chapter)  appears  among 
any  of  the  vegetable  crops,  one  should  determine  with- 
out delay  the  nature  of  the  injury.  If  this  cannot  be 


Diseases  of  Plants  309 

determined  with  reasonable  certainty  from  personal 
knowledge,  from  such  literature  as  may  be  at  hand, 
or  from  persons  who  may  readily  be  consulted,  then 
the  county  agricultural  agent  or  the  state  agricultural 
experiment  station  should  be  written  to.  When  writing 
for  inlormation,  it  is  well  to  send  specimens  from  dis- 
eased plants  (or  if  the  trouble  is  caused  by  insects,  a 
few  of  these),  with  a  full  description  of  the  conditions. 
Although  children  cannot  be  expected  to  handle  poisons 
used  in  seed  treatment  or  in  sprays,  they  can  observe  how 
these  remedies  are  applied  and  they  can  readily  learn  to 
recognize  the  symptoms  of  many  diseases  and  insect 
pests.  If  there  is  a  microscope  in  the  school,  demon- 
stration of  the  spores  of  many  parasitic  fungi  may  readily 
be  made.  Such  a  demonstration  may  often  be  arranged 
through  school  authorities  or  through  the  county  agri- 
cultural agent.  An  acquaintance  with  the  world  of 
microorganisms  all  about  us  may  well  be  begun  in  this 
manner. 

Questions 

Why  are  the  garden  plants  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
higher  forms  of  plant  life?  Name  some  seedless  plants.  Name 
some  common  plants  that  do  not  have  green  coloring  matter. 
How  do  fungi  reproduce  ? 

What  are  parasites  ?  Why  did  the  causes  of  many  plant  diseases 
long  remain  a  mystery?  How  may  the  gardener  recognize  the 
presence  of  disease  in  his  plants  ? 

How  does  the  clubroot  disease  of  cabbage  affect  the  plant  it 
attacks?  How  is  it  controlled?  How  can  the  clubroot  disease 
be  distinguished  from  the  root-knot  disease  of  cabbage?  What 
causes  bacterial  wilt  of  vine  crops?  Describe  the  activities  of 
the  parasite.  How  does  it  gain  an  entrance  to  the  host  plant  ? 
What  are  the  best  means  of  controlling  the  disease?  Describe 


3io  Gardening 

the  effect  of  bean  blight.  How  is  it  controlled?  What  is  the 
"black  rot"  of  cabbage?  Describe  the  effects  of  the  downy 
mildew  of  cucumber. 

How  is  Bordeaux  mixture  prepared?  What  are  the  general 
rules  for  using  this  fungicide  ? 

Describe  the  appearance  of  a  tomato  plant  affected  by  the 
tomato-leaf  blight.  How  is  the  disease  spread?  How  is  it 
controlled?  What  is  a  "damping-off"  disease?  How  is  it 
prevented?  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  corn-smut  fungus. 
How  can  the  spores  be  prevented  from  spreading  ?  What  is  bean 
anthracnose  ?  What  are  the  methods  of  control  ? 

Why  is  there  no  one  means  of  controlling  all  plant  diseases? 
What  are  the  sanitary  measures  of  controlling  plant  diseases? 
How  does  crop  rotation  assist  in  keeping  plant  diseases  in 
check  ?  How  may  seeds  be  treated  for  diseases  they  are  carrying  ? 
Why  should  children  never  attempt  this  work  alone?  What  are 
the  general  principles  involved  in  using  fungicides?  How  are 
disease-resistant  varieties  of  crops  developed  ? 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

1.  To  learn  to  recognize  the  symptoms  of  the  "various  diseases  oj 
garden  "vegetables.     Watch  for  the  earliest   appearance  of  a  plant 
disease.     If  at  any  time  a  plant  looks  as  if  it  were  diseased,   try 
to  learn  what  disease  it  is,  either  by  referring  to  a  garden  book 
or  by  asking  an  experienced  gardener ;   or,  if  you  cannot  find  out 
in  any  other  way,  send  specimens  of  diseased  plants  to  the  state 
agricultural  experiment   station  for   identification,   and   ask  for 
information.     In  this  way  you  will  get  into  the  habit  of  watch- 
ing for  the  appearance  of  disease  in  your  plants  and  you  will 
know  just  what  to  do  as  soon  as  you  recognize  the  disease. 

2.  To   learn  how  to   control  plant   diseases.     Secure    bulletins 
from  your  state  department  of  agriculture  on  the  diseases  of 
garden  vegetables  and  their  control.     Consult  the  local  dealer  as 
to  the  kind  of  sprayers  and  fungicides  he  sells.     Inquire  among 
gardeners  as  to  which  of  these  are  most  effective. 


CHAPTER  NINETEEN 

INSECTS  IN  THE   GARDEN 

He  is  rather  handsome  as  bugs  go,  but  utterly  dastardly. 

CHARLES  DUDLEY  WARNER 

VARIOUS  insects  attack  garden  plants,  and  if  left 
alone,  these  insect  enemies  may  seriously  injure  crops  or 
even  destroy  them  entirely.  The  gardener  therefore 
needs  to  know  what  insects  attack  the  different  vege- 
tables, how  to  tell  when  they  are  present,  and  what  to  do 
in  destroying  or  controlling  them. 

In  the  course  of  their  lives,  insects  pass  through  re- 
markable changes  in  form  and  appearance.  Often  the 
habit  of  living  and  feeding  entirely  changes  in  passing 
from  one  stage  to  another.  In  general,  the  best  methods 
of  combating  any  given  insect  depend  on  its  life  history 
and  how  it  feeds  at  the  time  when  it  injures  the  plants. 
In  this  chapter,  therefore,  we  shall  study  the  life  history 
and  feeding  habits  of  some  of  the  insects  that  are  of  most 
interest  to  the  gardener  and  learn  the  best  ways  of  pro- 
tecting garden  plants  from  them. 

THE    CHEWING   INSECTS 

The  chewing  insects  are  those  which  at  some  stage  of 
life  chew  or  bite  into  plants  from  the  surface.  They  may 
therefore  be  killed  by  poisons  sprayed  or  dusted  over  the 
plants  which  they  are  eating.  Other  methods  of  control- 
ling them  may  be  used,  depending,  as  we  shall  learn,  on 
the  way  the  insect  lives. 

The  cabbage  butterfly.  Cabbage  plants,  especially  in 
late  summer,  are  often  infested  with  greenish-colored 
caterpillars,  commonly  spoken  of  as  "  cabbage  worms." 
These  caterpillars  have  such  hearty  appetites  that  they 


312  Gardening 

often  completely  strip  the  leaves  of  young  plants,  check- 
ing their  growth  and  preventing  the  proper  formation  of 


FIG.  174.     Different  stages  in  the  life  of  the  cabbage  butterfly. 

heads.  On  older  plants  they  burrow  from  leaf  to  leaf 
among  the  outer  leaves  of  a  head,  leaving  castings  that 
make  the  heads  undesirable  as  food.  The  caterpillar  in- 
creases in  size,  shedding  or  molting  its  skin  several 
times  as  it  grows,  until  in  2  or  3  weeks  it  is  an  inch  or 
more  long. 

When  fully  grown,  a  caterpillar  attaches  itself  firmly 
by  a  few  silken  threads,  sheds  its  skin  again,  and  in- 
closes itself  in  a  thin  but  tough  and  horny  covering.  It 


Insects  in  the  Garden  313 

is  now  a  pupa  (plural,  pupce)  or,  as  it  is  also  called,  a 
chrysalis  (plural,  chrysalides).  Before  it  passes  into  this 
stage  the  caterpillar  usually  leaves  the  plant  upon  which 
it  has  been  feeding  and  crawls  up  some  object,  as  a  tree, 
a  fence,  or  a  building. 

The  pupal  stage  is  the  resting  period  of  the  insect's 
life ;  when  in  this  stage  it  does  not  eat,  and  appears  to  be 
inactive  and  dormant.  But  within  the  thin  shell  wonder- 
ful changes  are  taking  place,  and  in  time  a  butterfly 
develops  and  comes  forth.  This  is  the  mature  or  adult 
form  of  the  insect. 

The  cabbage  butterfly  is  white  above  and  white  or 
yellowish  beneath,  with  a  wing  spread  of  about  2  inches. 
The  male  has  one  black  spot  on  each  of  the  four  wings. 
The  female  has  an  extra  spot  on  each  of  the. front  wings. 
These  butterflies  may  be  seen  flitting  about  the  garden 
almost  any  day  during  the  summer.  In  the  butterfly 
stage  the  insect  does  not  feed  upon  the  cabbage  plants ; 
its  food  is  now  obtained  from  the  nectar  of  flowers. 

When  the  female  is  ready  to  lay  eggs,  she  alights  on 
the  edge  of  a  cabbage  leaf  and  glues  the  eggs,  one  at  a 
time,  in  different  places  on  the  lower  surface.  A  butter- 
fly has  been  known  to  lay  as  many  as  125  eggs  in  a  single 
day,  but  of  course  not  all  of  these  are  placed  on  any  one 
plant.  The  eggs  are  about  -^  inch  in  length.  In  from 
3  to  10  days  the  eggs  hatch  ;  tiny  caterpillars  emerge  and 
immediately  begin  feeding. 

In  its  life  cycle,  this  insect  passes  through  four  rather 
distinct  forms :  (i)  the  egg;  (2)  the  caterpillar  or  larva 
(plural,  larva),  which  is  often  incorrectly  called  a 
worm ;  (3)  the  pupa,  or  so-called  resting  form ;  and 


314  Gardening 

(4)  the  butterfly  or  adult  form.  The  appearance  of  the 
same  individual  insect  and  its  habits  of  feeding  and  living 
are  very  different  in  the  various  stages  of  its  life. 

In  the  northern  states  the  cabbage  butterfly  lives 
over  winter  in  the  pupal  stage.  The  pupae  that  are 
formed  late  in  autumn  remain  in  this  stage  until  late  in 
the  following  spring.  During  the  summer,  however,  the 
butterflies  emerge  from  pupae  in  from  7  to  10  days  ;  con- 
sequently there  are  in  the  North  at  least  two  generations 
in  a  season. 

In  the  southern  states,  where  the  winters  are  very  mild, 
there  may  be  as  many  as  six  generations  in  a  year ;  the 
butterflies  and  the  caterpillars  of  this  insect  are  there- 
fore present  throughout  the  year. 

The  cabbage  butterfly  may  be  fought  both  in  the 
adult  and  in  the  larval  stage.  The  following  methods  are 
recommended : 

(1)  Catching  the  butterflies.     The  butterflies  are  active 
in  their  movements,  but  they  may  be  captured  in  butter- 
fly nets  as  they  flit  about  the  garden.     Special  efforts 
to  catch  the  females  at  the  time  when  eggs  are  being 
laid  will  often  greatly  reduce  the  later  work  of  killing 
the  caterpillars. 

(2)  Hand-picking    the   caterpillars.     The    caterpillars 
are  sluggish  in  their  movements  and  can  readily  be 
picked  off  the  leaves  and  destroyed.     At  first  they  are 
minute,  and  their  color  is  almost  the  same  as  that  of  the 
leaves  upon  which  they  feed,  but  as  they  grow  larger  they 
are  more  easily  seen. 

A  simple  means  of  killing  the  caterpillars  is  to  drop 
them  into  a  dish  containing  water  and  a  little  kerosene. 


Insects  in  the  Garden 


To  hand-pick  successfully,  the  plants  should  be  searched 
repeatedly,  beginning  as  soon  as  signs  of  the  insect  are 
seen. 

(3)  Use  of  poisons.  Poisons  are  often  used  to  kill 
chewing  insects,  and  for  some  insects  the  use  of  a  poison 
is  the  best  means  of  control.  How  to  mix  poisons  and 


U.S.D.A. 

FIG.  175.  Map  showing  the  rapid  spread  of  the  cabbage  butterfly.  It  first 
appeared  at  Quebec  in  1860,  and,  spreading  southward  and  westward,  by  1881  it 
was  found  over  half  the  continent. 


316  Gardening 

apply  them  to  plants  may  be  explained  in  this  connec- 
tion. 

To  use  Paris  green  dry,  mix  it  in  the  proportion  of  i 
part  to  10  parts  of  dry  air-slaked  lime,  and  dust  the  mix- 
ture liberally  over  the  plants  while  the  dew  is  on.  A 
tin  sifter  or  duster  for  use  can  be  bought  for  less  than 
a  dollar.  A  good  duster  can  be  made,  however,  by 
punching  small  holes  in  one  end  of  an  empty  baking- 
powder  can,  by  constructing  a  bag  made  of  cheesecloth, 
or  by  folding  together  the  edges  of  a  piece  of  loosely 
woven  burlap.  Place  the  poison  within  the  duster  or 
bag  and  use  as  a  shaker. 

Paris  green  may  be  applied  also  as  a  liquid  spray. 
Melt  i  ounce  of  common  laundry  soap  in  4  gallons  of  hot 
water.  When  the  mixture  is  cool,  add  i  ounce  (about 
5  heaping  teaspoonfuls)  of  Paris  green,  stir  well,  and 
apply  by  means  of  a  compressed-air  or  auto  sprayer. 
Good  sprayers  of  small  size  costing  from  one  to  two 
dollars  are  listed  in  the  catalogues  of  seed  firms. 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  another  effective  poison,  and  it  is 
sometimes  cheaper  than  Paris  green.  To  use  it  dry,  mix 
i  part  of  powdered  arsenate  to  3  parts  of  air-slaked  lime. 
To  make  a  spray,  use  i  ounce  of  the  arsenate  of  lead  to 
3  gallons  of  soapy  water.  The  soap  in  the  water  is 
needed  to  make  the  solution  stick  to  the  leaves  of  cab- 
bages instead  of  rolling  off  their  smooth,  waxy  surfaces. 

White  hellebore  is  very  generally  recommended  as  a 
poison  for  chewing  insects.  It  may  be  applied  as  a  dry 
powder  or  in  a  spray,  using  i  ounce  of  powder  in  i  gal- 
lon of  water.  It  is  often  stated  that  this  poison  soon 
loses  its  activity  when  exposed  to  air  and  becomes 


Insects  in  the  Garden    •  317 

harmless.  If  this  were  true,  white  hellebore  would  be 
especially  valuable  for  use  on  salad  vegetables.  There 
is,  however,  considerable  doubt  that  it  becomes  harm- 
less in  a  short  time,  and  for  this  reason  its  application 
on  leaves  that  are  to  be  used  as  food  is  to  be  safe- 
guarded, as  noted  in  the  next  paragraph. 

Caution.  Paris  green,  arsenate  of  lead,  and  white 
hellebore  are  deadly  poisons  to  human  beings.  All 
supplies  of  these  materials  should  be  kept  where  children 
cannot  obtain  them.  In  the  home  garden,  poisons  should 
be  used  only  when  no  other  means  are  effective,  and  then 
only  by  experienced  persons. 

When  these  poisons  are  used  in  the  dust  form,  children 
should  be  careful  not  to  get  dust  in  their  own  faces  or 
in  the  faces  of  others.  Leafy  crops  should  be  sprayed 
with  poisons  only  when  young,  long  before  they  are  to  be 
used  as  food.  Poisons  should  not  be  applied  to  cabbages 
after  the  heads  are  beginning  to  form. 

Cutworms.  Cutworms  often  do  much  damage  by 
chewing  through  and  cutting  off  the  tender  stems  of 
young  plants  of  beans,  corn,  tomatoes,  onions,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  cabbages.  These  "  worms  "  are  the  cater- 
pillars or  larvae  of  night-flying  moths.  During  summer 
evenings  they  often  fly  through  open  windows  into  a 
room  and  flit  about  a  lighted  lamp. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  late  summer;  the  young  cater- 
pillars that  soon  hatch  from  them  feed  during  autumn 
chiefly  on  the  roots  of  grasses,  and  then  live  over  winter 
as  half-grown  caterpillars.  Hence  cutworms  are  almost 
sure  to  be  present  in  a  garden  that  was  in  sod  the  previous 
year.  In  the  spring  they  crawl  over  the  surface  of  the 


Gardening 


V.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  176.  Life  history  of  the  varie- 
gated cutworm :  a,  adult  moth ;  b, 
larva  in  the  injurious  stage,  feeding ; 

c,  larva  coiled  up,  a  characteristic  po- 
sition when  resting  in  the  ground ; 

d,  top  view  of  larva,  showing  the  six 
little  white  dots  on  the  back ;  e,  egg 
mass  on  a  twig ;  /,  side  view  of  an 
individual  egg,  much  enlarged. 


garden  during  darkness  and 
feed  by  chewing  through  the 
stems  of  young  plants.  Af- 
ter feeding,  they  burrow  into 
the  soil,  where  they  curl  up 
and  remain  quiet  during  the 
day.  There  are  several  ways 
of  overcoming  cutworms. 

(i)  Protection  from  attack. 
A  stiff  paper  cylinder  or 
collar  3  inches  in  height,  set 
into  the  ground  about  a 
plant,  will  afford  protection, 
for  the  worms  rarely  climb 
over  it.  This  method  is  feasible  for  protecting  trans- 
planted plants  of  cabbage  and  tomato,  but  not  for  crops 
grown  from  seed  planted  in  the  garden. 

(2)  Killing   the   caterpillars.     By    carefully   scraping 
away  the  dirt  from  around  the  bases  of  plants  that  have 
been  cut  off  during  the  night,  one  can  often  find  the 
caterpillars  and  destroy  them  (see  Figure  10).     A  search 
for  cutworms  should  be  made  early  in  the  morning. 

(3)  Use  of  poisoned  bait.     This  method  is  sometimes 
used  in  commercial  gardening,  but  its  use  is  seldom  neces- 
sary in  the  small  home  garden  if  the  methods  noted  above 
are  vigorously  employed.     To  make  poison  bran  mash, 
mix  3  teaspoonfuls  of  Paris  green  with  i  pound  of  dry 
wheat  bran.     Dissolve  2  teaspoonfuls  of  salt  and  5  of 
sirup  in  a  teacupful  of  water.     Mix  all  together  and  add 
enough  water  to  make  the  mash  crumbly.     This  poisoned 
bait  is  scattered  over  the  ground  every  evening  during 


Insects  in  the  Garden 


the  season  when  the  cater- 
pillars are  causing  injury  to 
crops. 

One  of  the  most  common 
species  of  owlet  moth  in  the 
United  States  is  the  "  dingy 

cutworm."     The    moth   is   a      ^b  d   e 

buffy  and  dingy  gray  color,    FIQ    ^     We  ^ S/^ 

and  the   caterpillar   is   a  light     striped  cucumber  beetle :   a,  adult 

T»  r  .1        i  •     j        beetle ;  b,  larva ;  c,  pupa ;    d,  egg, 

drab  COlor.     Many  Other  kinds     much  enlarged;     e,   markings   on 

Of    CUtWOrmS    may    be    found     the  egg  as  they  appear  when  egg 

is  highly  magnified.  The  short 
black  line  in  the  center  of  the  pic- 
ture gives  the  exact  length  of  the 


adult  beetle;  the  larva  and  pupa 
are  correspondingly  smaller  than 
they  appear  here. 


in  the  garden. 

The  striped  cucumber  bee- 
tle. This  insect  does  much 
injury  to  cucumbers,  musk- 
melons,  watermelons,  pumpkins,  and  squashes,  and  also 
sometimes  to  beans,  peas,  and  corn.  Early  in  spring 
the  beetles  come  forth  and  live  on  various  weeds  until 
the  vine  crops  start  to  grow  in  the  garden.  Then  they 
feed  so  ravenously  upon  these  that  the  entire  crop  may 
be  destroyed  in  a  few  days,  almost  before  the  young 
plants  show  above  ground.  This  beetle  occurs  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  United  States  and  is  the  most 
destructive  insect  enemy  of  the  vine  crops. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  late  spring.  They  hatch  in  about 
10  days  into  grubs,  which  feed  by  burrowing  into  or 
feeding  on  the  stems  and  roots  of  vine  plants,  and  also  by 
eating  into  the  fruits.  The  larvae  are  white,  with  a  brown, 
horny  head.  They  are  long  and  slender,  not  short  and 
thick  like  the  larvae  of  the  squash  borer,  described  later. 
After  about  a  month,  they  pass  into  the  resting  stage, 


320  Gardening 

which  lasts  until  late  summer  or  autumn.  Then  the 
mature  beetles  appear  and  live  through  the  winter  under 
such  rubbish  as  dead  plants,  mats  of  grass,  or  even  boards 
that  may  be  lying  about.  The  beetle  is  only  about  f 
inch  long.  Its  color  above  is  yellow,  with  a  black  head 
and  a  black  stripe  along  the  edge  of  each  wing  cover. 
When  the  wings  are  closed,  these  colors  give  the  back  the 
appearance  of  having  three  stripes. 

The  striped  cucumber  beetle  passes  through  four 
stages,  quite  the  same  as  does  the  cabbage  butterfly; 
but  it  is  of  course  a  very  different  type  of  insect,  both  in 
appearance  and  in  habits.  It  is  most  injurious  to  vine 
plants  when  in  the  adult  stage,  and  it  is  then  that  it  is 
most  easily  destroyed. 

The  five  following  methods  of  fighting  the  striped 
cucumber  beetle  are  the  most  effective  that  gardeners 
know: 

•(i)  Early  spraying.  In  spring  it  is  well  to  spray  the 
plants  of  cucumbers  and  squashes,  as  soon  as  they  appear 
above  the  ground,  with  a  solution  of  arsenate  of  lead  of  a 
strength  of  3  ounces  to  5  gallons  of  water.  As  an  ounce 
of  arsenate  of  lead  is  equal  to  about  5  heaping  teaspoon- 
fuls,  the  solution  is  made  with  3  spoonfuls  to  i  gallon  of 
water.  Paris  green  is  not  used,  because  it  is  likely  to 
injure  the  leaves  of  cucumbers  and  squashes. 

(2)  Use  of  trap  plants.  As  the  beetle  prefers  to  feed 
on  the  squash,  hills  of  the  summer  squash  or  the  Hubbard 
squash  may  be  planted  among  the  cucumbers  to  act  as 
"  trap  plants."  Then,  when  the  beetles  are  feeding  on 
these,  a  sudden  application  of  a  spray  of  pure  kerosene 
will  catch  them  and  kill  them  before  they  can  escape. 


Insects  in  the  Garden  321 

The  trap  plants  also  will  be  injured  or  even  killed,  but 
they  will  have  served  their  purpose. 

(3)  Protection  by  covering.     During  the  early  stages  of 
their  growth,  young  plants  of  the  vine  crops  may  be  pro- 
tected by  frames  covered  with  cheesecloth. 

(4)  Late  spraying  and  hand-picking.     In  the  autumn, 
large  numbers  of  the  adult  beetles  may  be  killed  by  spray- 
ing or  dusting  late-growing  plants  of  the  Hubbard  squash 
with  arsenate  of  lead.     The  beetles  collect  also  on  im- 
mature fruits  left  in  the  garden ;   and  on  cool  mornings, 
about  the  time  of  the  first  frosts,  these  insects  are  sluggish 
with  the  cold.     At  such  times  the  fruits  may  be  picked 
and  the  clinging  beetles  brushed  into  a  pail  of  water  and 
kerosene.     The  common  squash  bug  and  the  twelve- 
spotted  cucumber  beetle  also  may  be  destroyed  in  con- 
siderable numbers  at  the  same  time. 

(5)  Burning  old  vines.     After   the  vines  have  been 
killed  by  frost,  they  should  be  raked  into  piles  and  left 
for  several  days;    then,  with  the  addition  of  brush  or 
straw,  the  piles  may  be  burned  quickly,  thus  killing  the 
beetles   that  have  taken  refuge  within.     During  late 
autumn  the  gardener  is  likely  to  become  careless  regard- 
ing the  use  of  remedies  against  insects ;   but  he  should 
remember  that  "  a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine." 

Other  chewing  insects  likely  to  injure  garden  crops. 
The  potato  beetle  is  nearly  always  present  on  potatoes 
and  feeds  vigorously  both  in  the  adult  and  in  the  larval 
stages.  Methods  for  the  control  of  the  potato  beetle 
have  already  been  mentioned  (page  280). 

Two  kinds  of  beetles  are  injurious  to  asparagus,  feed- 
ing in  both  the  larval  and  adult  stages  on  young 


322  Gardening 

shoots  and  mature  plants.  Various  sorts  of  tiny  "  flea 
beetles  "  eat  holes  into  the  leaves  of  eggplants,  squashes, 
cucumbers,  melons,  snap  beans,  and  tomatoes.  These 
insects  are  best  destroyed  by  sprays  of  arsenate  of  lead. 
The  blister  beetles  of  the  beet  and  Swiss  chard  are 
black  or  striped  beetles  about  J  inch  in  length.  They 
often  "  come  in  droves,"  and  if  unchecked,  soon  do 
much  injury.  It  is  not  advisable  to  spray  Swiss  chard 
with  poisons,  but  the  insects  may  be  caught  by  beating 
and  shaking  from  the  plants  into  a  wide-mouthed  pail 
containing  water  and  a  small  amount  of  kerosene. 

THE    SUCKING    INSECTS 

The  insects  which  are  known  as  the  "  true  bugs  "  have 
their  mouth  parts  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  tube-like 
beak.  Those  that  live  upon  plants  feed  by  inserting  this 
beak  into  the  plant  and  sucking  out  the  juice.  They 
are  therefore  not  injured  by  poison  on  the  surface  of  the 
leaves,  but  must  be  sprayed  or  dusted  with  something 
that  will  kill  them  by  coming  in  contact  with  them. 
Kerosene  emulsion  and  preparations  containing  nicotine 
are  most  generally  used  for  this  purpose. 

Aphids.  The  most  common  sucking  insects  in  the 
garden  are  the  plant  lice  or  aphids.  There  are  many 
kinds  of  aphids  that  attack  plants.  Some  feed  upon 
roots ;  others  on  the  parts  that  grow  in  the  air,  mostly  on 
tender  young  leaves,  buds,  or  fruits.  They  are  all 
rather  small  and  feed  wholly  on  plant  juices.  In  the 
North  they  live  over  winter  in  the  egg  stage,  but  in 
the  more  southern  states  they  are  present  in  the  adult 
stage  throughout  the  winter  as  well  as  in  summer. 


Insects  in  the  Garden  323 


FIG.  178.  Showing  how  aphids  stunt  the  growth  of  seedlings.  These  two 
cabbage  plants  were  started  at  the  same  time ;  the  one  at  the  left  was  allowed 
to  become  infested  with  aphids,  but  the  one  at  the  right  was  kept  free  from 
them. 

In  the  vegetable  garden,  plant  lice  are  often  abundant 
on  peas,  on  melons,  cucumbers,  and  other  vine  crops,  and 
on  spinach  and  cabbage.  The  insects  feed  chiefly  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  leaves,  which  often  become  irreg- 
ularly curled  and  shriveled  through  their  work.  Badly 
infested  plants  do  not  thrive,  they  often  fail  to  pro- 
duce good  crops,  and  they  may  die  prematurely. 

Aphids  are  usually  overcome  with  sprays  made  from 
tobacco  preparations.  These  are  sold  in  the  market 
under  various  trade  names.  One  of  the  best  known  and 
most  powerful  is  "  Black  Leaf  40."  Nicotine  sulfate, 
made  from  tobacco,  is  much  used  in  making  insect 
sprays.  To  use  it,  dissolve  i  ounce  of  soap  in  a  gallon 
of  hot  water,  and  then  add  i  teaspoonful  of  the  nicotine 
sulfate.  A  small  package  of  smoking  tobacco  boiled  in 


324  Gardening 

3  gallons  of  water  with  an  ounce  of  soap  will  make  a 
solution  that  will  kill  plant  lice.  This  solution  should 
be  strained  before  using,  to  prevent  clogging  of  the 
sprayer. 

Kerosene  emulsion  also  may  be  used  to  kill  aphids  and 
other  insects,  but  it  is  not  so  convenient  to  make  up  as 
the  tobacco  preparations.  To  prepare  it,  boil  ^  pound 
of  laundry  soap  in  i  gallon  of  water  until  dissolved. 
Remove  from  the  fire  and  add  2  gallons  of  kerosene. 
Pour  the  kerosene  into  the  water  slowly,  adding  small 
amounts  at  a  time.  Stir  constantly  and  thoroughly,  and 
in  about  5  or  10  minutes  the  mixture  will  become  thick 
and  creamy.  This  stock  solution  may  be  kept  stored  for 
use  at  any  time.  Dilute  with  from  10  to  20  parts  of  hot 
water,  stir  well,  and  use  as  a  spray.  Both  the  kerosene 
and  the  tobacco  sprays  should  be  cool  when  used  on  the 
plants. 

To  be  effective,  these  sprays  must  reach  the  body  of  the 
insect.  They  should  be  applied  as  a  fine,  mist-like  spray, 
such  as  a  good  compressed-air  spray  pump  will  throw. 
The  under  surface  of  leaves  and  the  inclosed  portions  of 
rolled-up  leaves  should  be  reached,  so  that  all  insects 
present  will  be  touched  by  the  spray.  Several  applica- 
tions of  spray  at  intervals  of  2  or  3  days  may  be  required 
to  rid  plants  of  aphids. 

The  common  squash  bug.  The  full-grown  adult  of  the 
common  squash  bug  is  about  f  inch  long ;  it  is  of  a  dirty 
grayish-brown  color  above  and  a  yellowish  color  beneath. 
It  gives  off,  especially  when  handled,  an  offensive  odor. 
The  mouth  parts  are  formed  into  a  conspicuous  beak 
about  \  inch  long.  This  beak  is  characteristic  of  the 


Insects  in  the  Garden 


325 


sucking  insects;    with  it,   they  puncture  plants  and 
suck  juices  from  within. 


FIG.  179.  Life  history  of  the  common  squash  bug :  a,  nymph  soon  after  hatch- 
ing from  egg;  b,  second  stage  of  nymph;  c,  third  stage  of  nymph;  d,  fourth 
stage  of  nymph ;  e,  fifth  stage  of  nymph ;  /,  adult ;  g,  egg  mass  on  the  under 
side  of  a  squash  leaf.  All  the  figures  are  about  one  and  a  half  times  natural  size. 

The  adult  insects  live  over  winter,  hidden  in  and 
protected  by  rubbish  of  various  sorts.  The  small,  cop- 
pery-colored eggs  are  laid  mostly  on  the  under  sides  of 
leaves  of  squash  plants  and  usually  in  groups  of  thirty 
or  more.  Young  bugs  or  "  nymphs  "  appear  in  about  10 
days,  and  immediately  begin  to  feed  on  the  host  plant. 
After  molting  five  times,  which  covers  about  35  days 
of  feeding,  the  nymphs  become  adults.  They  thus 
pass  from  egg  to  adult  without  the  resting  or  chrysalis 
stage. 


326 


Gardening 


This  insect  is  injurious  through  its  whole  life,  except 
when  dormant  in  winter.     It  is  found  throughout  the 


u.  s.  D.  A. 

FIG.  180.  Life  history  of  the  harlequin,  or  calico-back  cabbage  bug:  a,  adult; 
b,  egg  mass ;  c,  first  stage  of  nymph ;  d,  second  stage ;  e,  third  stage ;  /,  fourth 
stage;  g,  fifth  stage.  All  enlarged. 


entire  United  States  and  is  reported  to  be  most  abundant 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Unfortunately  the  common  squash  bug  resists  kerosene 
and  nicotine  sulfate  sprays,  but  the  following  methods  of 
control  are  effective  when  carefully  carried  out : 

(i)  Hand-picking.  The  adult  bugs  are  picked  from 
the  vines  throughout  the  season,  or  if  pieces  of  board  are 
placed  in  the  garden,  especially  during  spring  and  early 
summer,  the  insects  gather  beneath  them.  Collect  and 
crush  the  eggs  also. 


Insects  in  the  Garden  327 

(2)  Clean  culture.  Clean  culture  also  should  be  prac- 
ticed. In  the  autumn  place  the  squash  vines  in  small 
piles  scattered  about  the  garden.  Allow  them  to  lie 
until  after  several  hard  frosts,  and  then  burn  them. 

The  calico-back  cabbage  bug.  The  "  calico  bug," 
"  fire  bug,"  "  terrapin  bug,"  or  "  harlequin  bug  "  is  the 
most  destructive  insect  of  the  various  cabbage  crops, 
and  also  of  the  turnip,  radish,  and  mustard,  throughout 
the  southern  part  of  the  United  States.  It  saps  the 
juice  from  the  veins  of  leaves  and  often  causes  plants  to 
wilt  and  die  as  if  swept  by  fire.  Its  gay  red  and  black 
coloring  makes  it  conspicuous  and  easily  recognized. 
In  general,  its  habits  and  life  history  are  quite  similar 
to  that  of  the  common  squash  bug  described  above.  In 
the  South  it  is  active  throughout  the  season,  but  near 
its  most  northern  range  (about  the  latitude  of  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.)  it  is  dormant  for  a  time  in  winter. 

There  are  three  good  methods  of  controlling  the  calico 
bug: 

(1)  Hand-picking.     This  is  effective,  especially  when 
adults  appear  on  a  crop  before  they  have  laid  eggs. 
Growers  in  various  parts  of  the  South  have  paid  bounties 
to  school  children  for  gathering  them,  and  it  is  reported 
that  as  many  as  47,000  of  these  bugs  were  thus  collected 
for  a   grower   at   Denton,    Texas,    during   one  month 
(February).     The  egg  masses  laid  on  the  under  side  of 
leaves  are  rather  conspicuous,  and  these  also  may  be 
gathered  and  crushed. 

(2)  Use  of  trap  crops.     Early  and  late  crops  of  mustard 
may  be  grown  among  the  plants  largely  for  the  purpose 
of  attracting  the  calico  bug.     The  insects  collect  on  the 


328  Gardening 

mustard  and  may  be  destroyed.  In  this  way  crops  of 
cabbage  are  protected  in  spring.  In  the  autumn  late 
crops  of  mustard  will  attract  the  bugs  at  times  when 
other  food  may  be  scarce. 

(3)  Clean  culture.  The  advice  given  for  clean  culture, 
under  methods  of  combating  the  common  squash  bug, 
will  be  helpful  also  in  keeping  the  calico  bug  under 
control. 

Gardeners  living  in  the  zone  just  north  of  the  present 
range  of  the  insect  should  keep  a  sharp  watch  for  its 
appearance.  Determined  efforts  should  be  made  to  pre- 
vent its  further  spread. 

THE   BURROWING  INSECTS 

The  larvae  of  many  insects  live  within  the  plant  and 
cannot  be  killed  in  their  feeding  stage  by  poisons  or 
sprays.  To  combat  them  it  is  necessary,  therefore, 
to  keep  the  adults  from  laying  eggs  among  the  plants,  to 
destroy  them  when  they  are  outside  the  plant,  or  to 
remove  them  from  their  tunnels  by  hand  and  kill  them. 
Several  kinds  of  burrowing  insects  are  troublesome  to 
garden  plants,  and  some  of  these  are  often  very  injurious. 

The  radish  maggot.  The  roots  of  radish  and  cabbage 
plants  are  attacked  by  "  maggots,"  which  eat  grooves  in 
them  or  even  tunnel  into  the  inside.  Young  cabbage 
plants  may  thus  be  killed,  and  infested  radishes  are 
stunted  and  made  worthless  as  food. 

The  adult  of  this  maggot  is  a  fly  (somewhat  smaller 
than  the  common  house  fly)  which  appears  in  the  spring. 
It  lays  its  eggs  in  the  soil,  usually  near  plants  of  the 
radish  or  the  cabbage,  and  the  eggs  hatch  in  from  3  to 


Insects  in  the  Garden  329 

5  days.  The  young  maggots  feed  on  or  within  the  roots, 
but  when  fully  grown  they  usually  leave  the  plants  and 
burrow  out  into  the  soil,  where  they  change  to  the  pupal 
or  dormant  stage.  During  the  summer  months,  the 
pupa  lies  dormant  only  from  12  to  18  days,  and  then  the 
adult  flies  appear.  Thus,  several  broods  are  produced 
in  a  season.  The  pupae  that  are  formed  in  the  autumn 
live  over  winter  in  the  ground.  The  following  methods 
are  used  in  the  control  of  the  radish  maggot : 

(1)  Protection  by  covering.     Beds  of  radishes  or  cab- 
bage plants  grown  in  cold  frames,  or  outdoor  beds  of 
these  plants,  may  be  protected  from  the  flies  by  placing 
over  them  a  board  frame  covered  with  cheesecloth. 

(2)  Prevention  of  egg  laying.     It  is  believed  by  some 
that  the  flies  will  not  lay  their  eggs  in  soil  upon  which  a 
little  kerosene  has  been  sprinkled.     To  apply  the  kero- 
sene, pour  a  cupful  of  it  over  a  pail  of  dry  sand,  mix  well, 
and  scatter  the  sand  over  the  soil  about  the  plants. 

(3)  Disks  of  tarred  paper.     Cabbage  plants  may  be 
protected  by  covering  the  earth  about  the  roots  of  the 
plant  with  disks  of  tarred  paper  about  4  inches  in  diam- 
eter.    These  should  be  fitted  closely  about  the  stem  of 
the  plant  when  it  is  placed  in  the  field. 

(4)  Killing  the  maggots  in  the  soil.    The  maggots  that  are 
in  the  soil  may  be  killed  by  pouring  kerosene  emulsion  or 
corrosive  sublimate  solution  (i  part  of  corrosive  sublimate 
to  1000  parts  of  water)  over  the  bed  or  row  until  it  soaks 
down  into  the  soil  about  the  main  roots  of  young  plants. 
Another  effective  solution,  which  may  be  used   in  the 
same  manner,  is  made  as  follows :  mix  a  pint  of  crude 
carbolic  acid  in  a  gallon  of  hot  water,  then  add  a  bar  of 


330 


Gardening 


laundry  soap  and  stir  until  soap  is  all  dissolved.  After 
the  solution  has  become  cool,  dilute  to  make  12^  gallons. 

(5)  Treatment  of  infested  crops.  After  a  bed  of 
radishes  becomes  infested,  it  is  best  to  pull  and  destroy 
all  infested  plants  immediately,  and  to  apply  a  solu- 
tion that  will  kill  the  maggots  that  are  in  the  soil. 

The  squash  borer.  Both  the  summer  and  the  winter 
squashes  are  attacked  and  often  destroyed  by  the  larvae 
of  the  squash  borer.  The  plants  attacked  soon  wilt 
badly  and  usually  die  within  a  few  days.  An  examina- 
tion of  such  plants  will  reveal  discolored  and  dead  areas 
in  the  stem,  especially  near  the  ground.  The  stem  within 
is  much  eaten  out  by  plump  white  "  grubs  "  or  larvae, 
which  may  be  found  if  the  stem  is  split  open. 

These  borers  feed  within  the  stems  during  summer  and 


FIG.  181.     Summer  squash  plants  killed  by  the  squash  borer. 


Insects  in  the  Garden 


U.  S.  D.  A. 

FIG.  182.  Life  history  of  the 
squash  borer :  a,  adult  male  moth  ; 
b,  adult  female  moth ;  c,  eggs,  as 
they  appear  on  the  surface  of  a 
squash  vine;  d,  full-grown  larva 
within  a  portion  of  the  vine;  e, 
pupa;  /,  outer  cell  surrounding 
the  pupa.  All  the  figures  are  about 
one-third  natural  size. 


autumn.  When  fully  grown, 
a  grub  leaves  the  plant,  bur- 
rows into  the  soil,  and  spins 
a  silky  cocoon,  within  which 
the  pupa  forms.  Thus  it  lives 
over  winter.  Late  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring  (in  June  in  New 
Jersey,  but  earlier  southward 
and  later  northward)  a  beauti- 
ful clear-winged  and  wasp- 
like  moth  emerges  from  the 
cocoon  and  escapes  from  the 
soil.  This  moth  is  about 

i  inch  long,  with  a  wing  spread  of  i|  inches.  Its  hind 
wings  are  transparent,  but  the  fore  wings  are  opaque 
and  of  a  brownish  color.  The  adult  moth  is  most  readily 
identified  by  a  conspicuous  fringe  of  orange-colored  hairs 
along  the  inner  side  of  the  hind  legs. 

The  moths  are  active  during  the  day  but  become 
sluggish  toward  nightfall,  and  in  the  evening  they  settle 
on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves  and  rest  during  the 
night. 

The  female  moth  lays  small,  dull-red  oval  eggs  along 
the  stems  of  squash  plants,  usually  near  or  even  just  be- 
low the  soil.  The  eggs  are  large  enough  to  be  seen  with 
the  naked  eye  if  one  looks  closely.  The  eggs  hatch  in  a 
few  days,  and  the  grubs  burrow  into  the  stem,  where  they 
feed.  They  eat  out  the  tissues  that  carry  soil  foods  and 
water  to  and  from  the  leaves,  and  the  plant  soon  suffers. 
If  several  larvae  are  present  in  a  single  stem,  the  plant 
usually  dies. 


332 


Gardening 


FIG.  183. 


Vine  of  a  summer  squash  laid  open  to  show  the  borers, 
a  full-grown  borer  is  shown. 


At  the  right 


In  the  more  northern  states  there  appears  to  be  one 
brood  of  the  squash  borer.  Farther  south  there  are  two, 
and  in  the  more  southern  states  there  seem  to  be  several 
broods  hatching  at  different  times.  Thus  the  adults 
appear  and  lay  their  eggs  in  broods,  and  the  larvae  are 
present  throughout  most  of  the  growing  season  for 
squashes.  In  some  sections  this  insect  is  so  troublesome 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  raise  squashes. 

Because  of  its  habits  the  squash  borer  is  difficult  to 
control.  However,  if  the  following  directions  are  care- 
fully carried  out,  it  may  be  kept  somewhat  in  check : 

(i)  Learn  to  know  the  moths.  Watch  for  them.  If 
they  are  seen  in  the  garden,  go  over  plants  every  evening 
or  early  in  the  morning  and  kill  all  the  adults  found  rest- 
ing on  the  leaves. 


Insects  in  the  Garden  333 

(2)  Examine  the  stems  of  squash  plants  for  eggs.     If 
any  are  found,  remove  them  with  the  point  of  a  knife, 
holding  a  dish  beneath  to  catch  them  as  they  fall,  and 
then  destroy  all  the  eggs  as  soon  as  they  are  collected. 
Or  instead,  the  eggs  may  be  crushed  by  rubbing  them 
against  the  stem. 

(3)  Kill  all  grubs  that  may  get  into  stems.    To  obtain 
these  grubs,  split  the  stems  of  infested  plants  halfway 
open  from  one  side.     If  only  a  few  grubs  are  present, 
they  may  be  removed  without  killing  the  plant  by  care- 
fully slitting  the  stem.     If  plants  are  badly  infested  and 
sure  to  die,  either  dig  out  all  larvae  or  completely  destroy 
the  entire  plant  and  the  larvae  within  it  by  burning. 

(4)  Help  plants  to  resist  the  attacks  of  the  borer.     The 
winter  squashes  that  make  long  vines,  and  also  to  some 
extent  the  summer  squashes,  can  be  rooted  at  the  joints. 
As  the  stem  grows,  cover  the  joints  with  soil ;  roots  will 
form,  and  these  will  supply  water  and  minerals  to  the 
leaves  even  though  the  stem  portions  near  the  main  root 
may  be  badly  infested,  or  much  injured  in  digging  for  the 
larvae. 

(5)  Cultivate  to  kill  the  insect  in  the  pupal  state.     In 
autumn  dig  up  and  rake  over  the  soil  on  which  infested 
plants  have  grown,  in  order  to  bring  the  cocoons  to  the 
surface  where  the  winter  weather  may  kill  them.     In 
spring  spade  deeply,  turning  the  top  soil  under  so  as  to 
bury  the  cocoons  so  deeply  that  the  moth  cannot  emerge. 

Other  burrowing  insects.  There  are  several  other 
insects  that  damage  garden  plants  by  burrowing  into 
the  stems  of  stalks. 

The  larvae  of  a  stalk  borer  burrows  into  the  stems  of 


334  Gardening 

the  tomato  and  the  potato.  The  stem  soon  wilts  and 
dies  above  the  place  where  the  insect  entered  ;  so  one  can 
tell  when  a  borer  is  in  a  plant.  By  slitting  open  the  stem 
the  insect  may  be  found  and  destroyed  early  in  its  life. 

The  seed-corn  maggot  burrows  into  the  roots  and  stems 
of  young  plants,  especially  corn,  beans,  and  cabbage, 
causing  them  to  wilt  and  die.  Pull  up  all  infested  plants 
and  destroy  the  larvae.  The  methods  advised  for  combat- 
ing the  radish  maggot  may  also  be  used  for  this  maggot. 

The  carrot-rust  fly  attacks  carrots,  celery,  parsnips, 
and  parsley,  feeding  in  the  tender  roots  and  burrowing 
into  large  roots  of  older  plants.  There  is  no  very  good 
method  of  control,  except  perhaps  that  of  growing  the 
crop  under  a  frame  completely  covered  with  cheesecloth. 

The  European  corn  borer  has  recently  been  introduced 
into  several  eastern  states,  and  there  is  danger  of  its 
spreading  throughout  the  country.  If  it  is  not  checked, 
it  may  become  a  serious  enemy  of  the  corn  grower.  The 
larvae  burrow  into  the  stalks,  ears,  and  even  the  seeds. 
As  many  as  311  borers  have  been  found  in  a  single  hill  of 
corn.  Such  a  destructive  insect  should  be  vigorously 
fought,  and  its  presence  should  be  reported  immediately 
to  the  state  agricultural  college,  to  a  county  agricultural 
agent,  or  to  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  for  instruction  as  to  the 
best  measure  of  control. 

BENEFICIAL   INSECTS 

Not  all  of  the  insects  seen  in  the  garden  are  injurious 
to  garden  crops.  Some  are  very  helpful,  for  they  feed 


Insects  in  the  Garden  335 

upon  injurious  insects  and  thus  help  to  keep  them  in 
check.  A  gardener  should  learn  to  recognize  these  ben- 
eficial insects,  so  that  he  may  preserve  and  protect  them. 

Parasitic  insects.  Many  garden  insects  are  preyed 
upon  by  other  smaller  insects  that  feed  upon  the  living 
tissues  of  their  bodies.  The  large  caterpillar  that  lives 
on  the  tomato  (and  sometimes  on  the  potato)  may  often 
be  seen  with  its  back  covered  with  small  white  oblong 
bodies  that  at  first  glance  may  be  mistaken  for  eggs. 
These  are  the  cocoons  of  the  larvae  of  a  very  small  fly 
(one  of  the  Braconids).  The  fly  punctures  the  body  of 
the  caterpillar  and  lays  its  eggs  under  the  skin.  Then 
the  larvae  hatch  and  feed  upon  the  caterpillar's  body. 
A  caterpillar  that  has  been  thus  parasitized  often  dies. 

Empty  shells  of  plant  lice  (aphids)  may  often  be  found 
clinging  to  the  leaves  of  plants.  These  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  another  kind  of  Braconid.  The  mother  in- 
sect finds  an  aphid  and  forces  her  eggs  into  its  body.  The 
eggs  soon  hatch,  and  the  larvae  feed  within  the  aphid  and 
kill  it.  The  pupae  form  inside  the  aphid  after  it  has  died, 
and  when  the  adults  develop  they  cut  a  circular  opening 
in  the  inclosing  shell  and  fly  out  to  lay  eggs  for  another 
generation.  Wherever  aphids  are  abundant,  the  shells 
showing  that  the  Braconids  are  at  work  on  them  can 
nearly  always  be  found. 

The  lady  beetles  or  lady  bugs.  Most  lady  bugs  (or 
more  exactly,  lady  beetles)  are  very  beneficial  to  the 
gardener.  The  adults  are  small,  nearly  hemispherical, 
and  usually  gayly  colored  with  conspicuous  spots.  Their 
larvae  somewhat  resemble  tiny  alligators  in  shape  and  are 
usually  spotted  and  covered  with  bristling  spines.  Both 


336  Gardening 

adults  and  larvae  of  the  beneficial  lady  beetles  feed  almost 
entirely  upon  aphids.  One  of  the  lady  beetles,  however 
(the  "squash  lady  bug"),  eats  the  leaves  of  the  squash, 
pumpkin,  muskmelon,  watermelon,  and  cucumber;  and 
another  species  is  injurious  to  bean  crops  in  Colorado, 
Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  Mexico.  These  in- 
jurious lady  beetles  should  be  destroyed.  They  may  be 
controlled  by  spraying  with  lead  arsenate,  in  the  same 
way  that  other  chewing  insects  are  treated. 

The  gardener  receives  much  assistance  from  nature 
through  the  feeding  habits  of  beneficial  insects  and  birds 
which  destroy  and  help  to  keep  in  check  the  various  in- 
sects that  injure  garden  crops.  But  it  is  often  necessary 
for  him  to  take  the  matter  of  destroying  insects  into  his 
own  hands. 

Fortunately,  the  gardener  is  able  to  use  methods  that 
hold  in  check  and  destroy  most  of  the  insects  injurious  to 
garden  crops,  and  through  close  observation  he  can  gain 
in  experience  and  knowledge  so  that  as  soon  as  insect 
enemies  appear  in  the  garden  he  will  know  just  what  to 
do,  when  to  do  it,  and  how  to  do  it. 

Questions 

What  do  we  need  to  find  out  about  an  insect  before  we  attempt 
to  control  it?  How  can  the  chewing  insects  in  general  be  de- 
stroyed? Describe  the  life  history  of  the  cabbage  butterfly, 
naming  the  four  stages  or  conditions  in  its  life.  In  which  stage 
is  it  injurious  to  cabbage  plants?  What  are  the  usual  methods 
of  controlling  the  cabbage  butterfly  ? 

How  is  dry  Paris  green  prepared  for  use  against  insects  ?  How  is 
it  used  ?  How  is  Paris  green  prepared  when  used  as  a  liquid 
spray  ?  How  is  arsenate  of  lead  used  when  dry  ?  How  is  it  pre- 
pared when  used  as  a  liquid  spray?  Describe  the  preparation 


Insects  in  the  Garden  337 

and  use  of  white  hellebore.  What  cautions  should  the  gardener 
take  in  using  these  three  poisons  ? 

How  do  cutworms  injure  plants  ?  What  are  the  three  most  im- 
portant methods  of  fighting  them  ?  How  is  poison  bran  mash  made  ? 

In  what  stage  is  the  striped  cucumber  beetle  most  injurious  to 
crops  ?  What  are  the  five  most  important  ways  of  controlling  it  ? 

How  do  the  sucking  insects  feed?  How  does  this  method 
of  feeding  injure  the  plant  ?  How  are  they  most  easily  destroyed  ? 
How  do  aphids  feed?  What  is  "Black  Leaf  40"?  How  is 
nicotine  sulfate  prepared?  How  is  kerosene  emulsion  prepared? 
Describe  the  proper  way  of  spraying  to  kill  aphids.  Give,  briefly, 
the  life  history  of  the  common  squash  bug.  What  are  the  two 
most  effective  ways  of  controlling  it  ?  How  does  the  calico-back 
cabbage  bug  injure  the  plants?  What  three  methods  are  used 
in  combating  it  ? 

Where  do  the  burrowing  insects  live?  What,  in  general,  are 
the  most  effective  methods  of  controlling  them?  Describe  the 
main  events  in  the  life  history  of  the  radish  maggot.  What  are 
the  five  best  methods  of  combating  this  insect  ?  Describe  the 
appearance  and  activities  of  the  squash  borer.  What  methods 
may  be  used  to  keep  it  in  check?  What  should  be  done  if  the 
European  corn  borer  is  found  in  your  garden  ? 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

i.  To  become  familiar  with  the  four  stages  in  the  life  history  of 
an  insect.  Watch  your  cabbage  plants  for  the  appearance  of  the 
cabbage  butterfly.  When  you  see  one  hovering  over  the  plants,  try 
to  find  the  egg  after  the  butterfly  has  gone.  Examine  it  carefully, 
with  a  hand  lens  if  possible,  so  that  you  may  be  able  to  recognize 
others  as  soon  as  you  sec  them.  Watch  the  larvae  and  try  to 
determine  how  long  it  takes  to  grow  from  the  egg  to  the  pupal 
stage.  When  you  have  found  a  chrysalid,  carefully  remove  it 
without  crushing  and  place  it  in  a  small  box  covered  with  netting 
or  cheesecloth.  Look  at  it  from  time  to  time  until  the  adult 
butterfly  emerges.  Note  whether  the  butterfly  is  male  or  female. 

In  the  same  way  try  to  recognize  the  four  stages  of  as  many 
other  garden  insects  as  possible.  In  some  cases  you  may  not  be 
able  to  find  all  four  stages.  Become  thoroughly  familiar,  however, 
with  those  you  do  find ;  and  note  particularly  in  which  stage  each 
insect  is  most  destructive. 


338  Gardening 

If  you  have  not  been  successful  in  observing  the  four  stages  as 
they  occur  in  the  garden,  make  an  insect  cage.  This  will  give 
you  an  opportunity  to  observe  closely  the  life  history  of  any  insect 
you  wish  to  study.  Tie  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  over  the  top  of 
a  large  lantern  chimney,  and  set  this  over  a  pot  of  earth.  Place 
eggs,  caterpillars,  or  larvae  of  any  insect  within  the  chimney, 
together  with  a  few  twigs  and  the  leaves  of  the  plant  that  the  insect 
you  are  studying  feeds  upon.  Supply  fresh  leaves  every  day,  and 
remove  any  that  have  wilted.  Observe  carefully  the  feeding 
habits,  and  watch  closely  the  change  from  larvae  to  pupa.  Note 
whether  the  insect  pupates  above  ground  or  below.  If  you  have 
started  with  the  egg  stage,  keep  a  record  of  the  length  of  time 
between  egg  and  pupa,  and  pupa  and  adult. 

2.  To  learn  how  the  various  garden  insects  feed.  Catch  a  grass- 
hopper, a  cricket,  a  locust,  or  any  large  beetle,  and  examine  its 
mouth  parts  with  a  hand  lens.  Notice  the  two  sets  of  jaws,  one 
working  sideways  and  the  other  up  and  down.  Then  try  to  find 
a  large  caterpillar  (a  tomato  worm,  a  cabbage  worm,  or  a  milkweed 
caterpillar,  for  example)  that  is  actively  feeding  on  a  leaf.  Ob- 
serve carefully  the  method  of  biting  off  and  chewing.  Note 
how  rapidly  the  caterpillar  eats  and  how  much  it  consumes  in  a 
meal.  Could  a  single  caterpillar  consume  during  its  life  every 
leaf  on  a  half -grown  plant  ? 

With  a  hand  lens  examine  an  aphid,  a  squash  bug,  or  a  calico- 
back  cabbage  bug,  while  feeding.  Note  carefully  the  sucking 
beak  embedded  in  the  stem  or  leaf.  By  watching  you  may  be 
able  to  see  one  of  these  sucking  insects  pierce  the  stem  or  leaf  of 
the  plant  and  settle  down  to  feeding. 

If  the  insects  mentioned  in  the  above  paragraph  are  not  to  be 
found  in  your  garden,  you  may  be  able  to  find  one  or  more  of  the 
following  insects  which  will  show  the  sucking  beak  just  as  well : 
(i)  a  water  boatman  (an  insect  about  half  an  inch  long  that  swims 
through  the  water  by  moving  two  of  its  legs  like  oars),  (2)  a 
froghopper  in  the  larval  stage  (look  for  a  small  insect  underneath 
a  mass  of  bubbles  on  a  grass  stem),  or  (3)  a  cicada  (harvest  fly 
or  "locust")-  Examine  carefully  the  long  beak  used  for  piercing 
and  sucking.  (Note.  In  your  search  for  one  of  these  insects 
you  may  find  the  empty  larval  case  of  the  cicada  clinging  to  a 
tree  trunk  or  post.  This  will  show  the  form  of  the  beak  as  well 
as  would  a  live  specimen.) 


CHAPTER  TWENTY 

HOME   STORAGE   OF   VEGETABLES 

The  roots  must  come  in  now,  and  the  harvest  will  soon  end. 

Old  Farmer's  Almanac 

A  GARDEN  not  only  provides  fresh  vegetables  during 
the  growing  season,  but  it  also  furnishes  certain  crops 
that  may  be  preserved  or  stored  for  future  use.  In 
this  chapter  we  shall  discuss  the  winter  storage  of  root 
crops  and  other  vegetables ;  but  snap  beans,  peas,  corn, 
tomatoes,  asparagus,  rhubarb,  spinach,  New  Zealand 
spinach,  Swiss  chard,  and  summer  squash  may  be  canned. 
Many  vegetables  may  also  be  preserved  by  drying,  in  the 
same  way  that  prunes,  apricots,  and  other  fruits  are  pre- 
served. In  doing  this  work  of  canning  and  drying,  the 
beginner  should  have  the  help  of  an  experienced  person. 

Often  this  help  is  given  in  special  classes  organized 
to  teach  this  phase  of  home  economics,  or  it  may  be 
treated  as  project  work  in  connection  with  gardening. 
The  beginner  may  secure  bulletins  on  the  subject  that 
will  give  full  information  concerning  the  methods  that 
are  used.  Such  bulletins  are  furnished  by  various 
organizations  and  especially  by  state  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations  and  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  The  directions  should  be  followed  very 
carefully ;  otherwise  the  work  may  not  be  a  success. 

Rules  for  storage  of  vegetables.  To  be  thoroughly 
successful  in  keeping  vegetables  in  storage,  the  follow- 
ing rules  must  be  observed : 

(i)  Only  vegetables  that  are  in  good  condition  should  be 
selected.  They  should  show  no  signs  of  decay  or  disease, 
they  should  be  dry,  and  at  least  moderately  free  from 

339 


340 


Gardening 


FIG.  184.  Preparing  root  crops  for  storage.  Only  the  sound  vegetables  should 
be  selected  for  storage,  and  these  should  not  be  cut  or  otherwise  injured.  Proper 
selection  and  preparation  often  determine  the  keeping  qualities  of  vegetables 
stored  as  much  as  the  conditions  of  storage  themselves. 


clinging  earth.  All  vegetables  should  be  stored  before 
they  are  frozen,  and  carefully  handled  to  prevent 
bruising. 

(2)  The  temperature  under  which  they  are  stored  should 
not  vary  suddenly  or  greatly.     For  most  vegetables  it 
should  not  go  above  50°  F.  and  of  course  should  not  fall 
below  the  freezing  point. 

(3)  Ventilation  must   be  provided.     More   vegetables 
are  lost  in  storage  through  failure  to  provide  ventila- 
tion than  from  any  other  cause.     Especially  during  the 
warm  weather  of   autumn  and  spring,  vegetables  are 
likely  to  "  heat  "  and  decay  if  they  are  shut  up  without 


air. 


(4)  For  all  vegetables  except   onions,   sweet  potatoes, 


Home  Storage  of  Vegetables  341 

squashes,  and  pumpkins  the  air  should  be  rather  moist. 
This  prevents  wilting  and  shriveling. 

(5)  The  storage  room  should  be  dark.  As  a  rule  vege- 
tables keep  best  in  darkness.  Some  vegetables,  like 
Irish  potatoes,  become  somewhat  green,  and  root  crops 
may  start  growth  if  they  are  not  kept  in  darkness. 

Storage  in  the  house  cellar.  An  unheated  frost-proof 
cellar  is  an  excellent  storage  place  for  nearly  all  garden 
vegetables.  A  cellar  with  a  furnace  in  it  is  likely  to  be 
too  warm  for  very  long  storage  of  most  vegetables,  and  a 
cool  room  should  be  partitioned  off.  This  is  usually 
made  in  one  corner,  with  the  outside  walls  of  the  cellar 
forming  two  sides.  The  other  walls  of  the  cool  room 
should  be  tightly  built  of  tongue-and-groove  lumber, 
with  double  walls,  or  else  made  of  hollow  tile. 

For  ventilation  there  should  be  a  window  with  a  chute 
built  into  one  pane  and  leading  to  the  floor.  This  per- 
mits the  entrance  of  cool,  fresh  air.  A  hinged  door  in 
place  of  another  pane  is  provided  to  allow  warm  air  to 
escape,  thus  insuring  perfect  ventilation.  In  severely 
cold  weather  these  may  be  closed  to  prevent  freezing. 

Cabbages,  beets,  carrots,  turnips,  rutabagas,  and 
potatoes  are  stored  in  bins  or  shelves  built  about  the 
walls  or  placed  in  boxes,  baskets,  crates,  or  barrels  that 
are  rather  loosely  stacked.  Packing  in  dry  leaves,  straw, 
or  sand  aids  in  keeping  root  crops  in  good  condition. 
Celery,  curled  endive,  and  pe-tsai  may  be  packed  in 
boxes,  with  the  roots  in  soil  or  sand.  If  water  is  added 
to  the  soil  about  the  roots  at  intervals,  the  plants  will 
remain  remarkably  fresh ;  but  the  tops  should  be  kept 
rather  dry,  or  they  may  rot. 


34 2  Gardening 

The  cellar  without  a  furnace,  or  the  cool  room  in  a 
cellar  containing  a  furnace,  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
satisfactory  means  of  storing  vegetables  for  home  con- 
sumption. A  dirt  floor  helps  to  keep  the  air  moist, 
but  if  the  floor  is  made  of  cement,  it  may  be  covered 
with  2  or  more  inches  of  sand  and  sprinkled  occasion- 
ally. 

Vegetables  that  must  be  stored  in  dry  air.  Squashes, 
pumpkins,  and  sweet  potatoes  keep  best  when  stored  in  a 
warm,  dry  place.  They  may  be  placed  on  shelves  or  in 
crates  near  the  furnace.  Onions  need  a  cool,  dry  place. 
The  cool  room  is  usually  too  damp  for  them,  and  a  cellar 
with  a  furnace  in  it  is  likely  to  be  too  warm.  They  do 
not  suffer  from  slight  freezing  and  usually  keep  best  in 
the  attic,  or  even  in  a  barn  or  workshop. 

Outdoor  storage  cellars.  Simple  one-room  cellars 
built  so  that  they  are  dry  and  free  from  frost  are  often 
made  out-of-doors.  In  the  South  they  are  usually  built 
entirely  above  ground ;  in  the  North  they  are  generally 
built  partly  or  wholly  below  ground.  They  may  be 
made  like  a  cave  in  a  side  hill.  Walls  of  stonework  or 
concrete  are  desirable.  The  roof  may  be  made  of  con- 
crete, with  a  dirt  covering ;  or  of  lumber,  double  walled 
and  insulated  with  paper ;  or  of  poles  and  planks  covered 
with  earth  and  straw.  Outdoor  cellars  are,  of  course, 
most  suitable  on  farms  and  large  truck  gardens  where 
there  are  often  considerable  amounts  of  vegetables  to  be 
stored. 

A  barrel  storage  pit.  The  simplest  and  perhaps  the 
best  outdoor  storage  place  for  the  owner  of  a  small  home 
garden  is  the  barrel  pit.  To  make  this,  a  barrel  is  placed 


Home  Storage  of  Vegetables 


343 


FIG.  185.  Getting  vegetables  from  a  barrel  storage  pit  during  a  warm  day  in 
midwinter.  Note  the  depth  of  earth  over  the  barrel,  and  the  ventilating  chimney 
in  the  center. 

on  its  side  in  a  well-drained  place  and  a  ventilating 
chimney  of  some  sort  attached  to  an  opening  in  the  top 
of  it.  The  barrel  is  first  covered  with  leaves  or  straw 
and  then  with  a  layer  of  earth.  After  the  vegetables 
have  been  placed  within,  the  open  or  "  head  "  end  is 
closed  with  boards  and  a  sufficient  amount  of  earth 
banked  up  over  these  boards  to  cover  them  entirely. 
If  now  a  layer  of  straw,  leaves,  or  cornstalks  is  placed 
over  the  earth  at  the  head  end,  this  earth  will  freeze  less 
solidly  and  it  will  be  easier  to  open  the  pit  during  the 
winter.  The  covering  of  earth  on  the  top  of  the  barrel 
should  be  thick  enough  not  to  freeze  through;  3  to  6 
inches  of  earth,  or  even  more,  should  be  used,  according 
to  the  severity  of  the  winter.  The  readiness  with  which 
supplies  can  be  obtained  from  the  barrel  pit  makes  it 
especially  suited  to  the  needs  of  a  small  family. 


344  Gardening 

Earthen    storage    pits.     These    are    simply   piles    of 
vegetables  covered  with  straw  or  leaves  and  soil.     Venti- 


FIG.  186.     Cross-section  of  an  earthen  storage  pit.     (Adapted  from  drawing 
in  Farmer's  Bulletin  936,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

lation  is  provided  by  allowing  a  large  bunch  of  straw  to 
extend  up  through  the  covering  of  earth  at  the  center 
of  the  pit.  A  board  or  flat  stone  is  laid  over  this  to  shed 
the  water.  Vegetables  keep  well  when  thus  stored,  but 
they  are  not  easily  removed  unless  the  entire  pit  is 
emptied.  Several  small  pits  with  different  sorts  of 
vegetables  in  each  may  be  built  and  emptied  one  at  a 
time  during  the  winter  as  the  contents  are  needed. 

Storage  in  banks  of  earth.  If  located  on  a  well- 
drained  site,  a  bank  of  earth  is  excellent  for  the  storage 
of  cabbage.  The  plants  are  pulled  out  by  the  roots  and 
laid,  heads  down,  in  rows  of  two  or  three  abreast.  Then 
a  layer  of  leaves  or  straw  is  placed  about  the  heads,  and 
over  this  a  layer  of  earth  a  few  inches  thick  is  banked  up, 
leaving  the  roots  and  part  of  the  stems  exposed  to  the  air. 
As  colder  weather  approaches,  more  earth  may  be  added  ; 
or  leaves,  straw,  or  cornstalks  may  be  piled  over  the 
bank.  Unless  the  soil  freezes  very  solidly,  the  cabbages 
are  easily  removed  one  at  a  time  as  they  are  wanted. 


Home  Storage  of  Vegetables 


345 


Storage  in  pens.  Cabbage,  celery,  pe-tsai,  endive, 
cauliflower,  and  Brussels  sprouts  may  be  stored  in  pens. 
The  plants  are  pulled  or  dug,  leaving  some  earth  on  the 
roots,  and  reset  rather  closely  in  a  bed  about  3  feet  wide. 
A  frame  of  poles  or  boards  is  made  about  the  bed,  and 
boards  or  poles  are  laid  across  the  top,  completing  the 
pen.  Earth  is  banked  about  the  sides,  and  the  top  is 
covered  with  straw,  leaves,  or  dirt  as  the  severity  of 
the  winter  may  require.  Supplies  may  be  taken  from  one 
end  as  needed. 


FIGS.  187  and  188.  Storing  vegetables  in  the  ground.  The  cabbages  are  set 
head  down  in  a  trench  and  the  earth  filled  in  about  them.  Boxes  of  root  vege- 
tables are  placed  in  a  pit.  Straw  is  laid  over  the  top  of  them,  and  the  earth  will 
then  be  mounded  up  over  the  straw.  Vegetables  should  be  stored  below  the 
level  of  the  ground  only  where  the  soil  is  loose  and  well  drained. 


346  Gardening 

Use  of  hotbeds  and  cold  frames  for  storage.  These 
may  be  used  for  storage  in  the  same  manner  that  pens  are 
used.  The  beds  may  be  emptied  by  the  time  they  are 
needed  for  growing  seedlings  in  the  following  spring. 
Late  crops  of  lettuce,  celery,  and  endive  may  be  grown 
directly  in  the  soil  of  hotbeds  and  cold  frames.  As  freez- 
ing temperatures  occur,  the  top  may  be  covered  and  the 
crop  removed  as  desired. 

Storage  in  attics.  Sweet  potatoes  and  squashes  may 
sometimes  be  stored  in  an  attic  near  a  chimney.  Onions 
may  be  kept  in  rather  cool  attics,  as  they  are  not  injured 
by  slight  freezing,  although  it  is  best  not  to  submit  them 
to  alternate  freezing  and  thawing.  Dry  beans  and  peas 
may  be  stored  in  an  attic  or  even  on  the  pantry  shelf. 

To  provide  suitable  means  for  winter  storage  of  home- 
grown vegetables  is  thus  in  most  cases  a  simple  matter. 
The  cellar  and  the  attic  are  usually  to  be  had  in  the  home. 
Cool  rooms  are  easily  made,  and  once  made  are  perma- 
nent. Outdoor  barrel  pits,  banks,  and  pens  also  are 
easily  and  quickly  constructed  and  afford  efficient  means 
of  keeping  vegetables  fresh. 

The  produce  raised  on  a  small  garden  plot  will  per- 
haps be  used  directly  from  the  garden,  but  a  garden  no 
larger  than  4  by  5  rods  may  yield  some  produce  for 
storage. 

During  the  winter  months  fresh  vegetables  such  as 
beets,  carrots,  and  cabbages  are  much  needed  in  the  diet, 
and  it  is  during  winter  that  these  vegetables  usually 
reach  their  highest  market  price.  Potatoes,  which  the 
small  gardener  will  perhaps  buy  in  the  market,  may  be 


Home  Storage  of  Vegetables  347 

had  cheaper  in  autumn  when  bought  in  bulk.  Proper 
storage  in  a  cool  room  or  in  pits  will  keep  these  in  ex- 
cellent condition.  It  pays  the  gardener  to  raise  crops 
for  storage  and  to  provide  simple  means  of  storage,  not 
only  for  the  surplus  of  the  crops  he  raises,  but  for  such 
staple  vegetables  as  he  does  not  raise  but  can  buy  to 
advantage  in  bulk  during  early  autumn. 

Questions 

In  what  two  ways  does  the  garden  serve  the  table?  Why 
are  crops  maturing  in  summer  subject  to  waste?  How  can  such 
waste  be  avoided?  Give  five  principal  rules  applying  to  the 
storage  of  vegetables. 

Why  is  a  cellar  containing  a  furnace  unsuited  to  the  storage  of 
most  vegetables  ?  How  can  a  cool  storage  room  be  made  in  a 
cellar?  What  vegetables  may  be  stored  in  such  a  room?  What 
vegetables  do  not  keep  well  in  such  a  room,  and  where  may  they 
be  stored  ? 

How  is  a  barrel  storage  pit  made  and  used  ?  How  are  earthen 
storage  pits  made?  What  is  their  disadvantage?  How  may 
cabbage  be  stored  in  banks  of  earth  ?  What  vegetables  may  be 
stored  in  pens  and  how  are  such  pens  made  ?  How  may  hotbeds 
and  cold  frames  be  used  for  storage? 

In  what  ways  is  storage  for  winter  use  profitable  ? 

Things  to  Do  and  Observe 

To  observe  how  the  various  vegetables  "keep"  under  the  conditions 
of  storage  which  you  give  them.  Watch  carefully  the  vegetables 
you  have  stored,  and  if  potatoes,  carrots,  and  beets  soon  shrivel, 
try  to  determine  the  cause,  and  then  take  measures  to  remedy  this 
defect  in  your  storage  system  or  conditions.  If  the  vegetables 
start  to  grow,  find  whether  this  is  caused  by  too  high  a  temperature 
or  too  much  light.  If  they  rot  to  any  great  extent,  try  to  deter- 
mine whether  they  need  better  ventilation  or  a  lower  temperature. 
Be  sure  to  remember  just  which  remedy  was  the  most  effective 
in  each  case,  so  that  you  can  provide  the  best  conditions  for 
storage  next  year. 


APPENDIX 


EARLIEST  PLANTING  DATES 

Safe  dates  for  planting  vegetable  seeds  and  seedlings  in  the  open  in 
Zones  A,  B,  and  C.     (See  Figure  88.) 


CROP 

ZONE  A 

ZONEB 

ZONE  C 

Cabbage 

Jan.  i-Feb.  i 

Feb.  i-Feb.  15 

Feb.  is-Mar.  i 

Collard 

" 

" 

" 

Garlic 

" 

" 

" 

Lettuce  —  leaf 

' 

" 

" 

Onion  —  sets 

' 

" 

« 

Pea  —  smooth 

' 

" 

« 

Potato  —  Irish 

' 

11 

« 

Radish 

1 

a 

" 

Turnip 

< 

« 

" 

Mustard 

Feb.  i-Feb.  15 

Feb.  is-Mar.  i 

Mar.  i-Mar.  15 

Onion  —  seed 

1 

u 

" 

Parsley 

1 

( 

" 

Parsnip 

1 

1 

" 

Pea  —  wrinkled 

1 

' 

11 

Artichoke  —  Jerusalem 

u 

t 

u 

Asparagus 

(Not  grown) 

i 

it 

Beet 

Feb.  i-Feb.  15 

1 

« 

Brussels  sprouts 

" 

' 

" 

Carrot 

a 

1 

" 

Cauliflower 

" 

' 

" 

Celery 

" 

1 

« 

Chard 

" 

1 

" 

Lettuce  —  head 

" 

1 

" 

Rhubarb 
Salsify 

(Not  grown) 
Feb.  i-Feb.  15 

(Not  grown) 
Feb.  is-Mar.  i 

u 

Spinach 

" 

" 

M 

Bean  —  snap 

Feb.  i5-Mar.  i 

Mar.  i-Mar.  15 

Mar.  is-Mar.  30 

Corn  —  sweet 

M 

" 

Bean  —  Lima 

Mar.  i-Mar.  15 

Mar.  i5-Apr.  i 

Apr.  i-Apr.  15 

Cucumber 

" 

" 

" 

Eggplant 
Melons 

« 

M 

« 

Okra 

" 

" 

1 

Pumpkin 

a 

" 

' 

Potato  —  Sweet 

" 

" 

' 

Squash 

M 

" 

' 

Tomato 

348 


Appendix 


349 


EARLIEST  PLANTING  DATES  —  Continued 

Safe  dates  for  planting  vegetable  seeds  and  seedlings  in  the  open  in 
Zones  D,  E,  F,  and  G.     (See  Figure  88.) 


ZONE  D 

ZONEE 

ZONEF 

ZONEG 

Mar.  i-Mar.  15 

Mar.  i5-Apr.  15 

Apr.  is-May  i 
(Not  grown) 
Apr.  i5-May  i 

May  i-May  15 
(Not  grown) 
May  i-May  15 

u 

i 

| 

j 

Mar.  is-Apr.  15 

Apr.  is-May  i 

May  i-May  15 

May  is-June  i 

Mar.  i5-Apr.  i 

Apr.  i-May  i 

.« 

(i 

n 

(t 

* 

u 

ii 

« 

« 

11 

u 

• 

' 

" 

Apr.  i-Apr.  15 

Apr.  is-May  i 

May  i-May  15 

May  1  5-  June  i 

Apr.  i5~May  i 

May  i-May  15 

May  is-June  i 

June  i  -June  15 

« 
u 

« 

(Not  grown) 
May  i5-June  i 

(Not  grown) 
June  i-June  15 

35o 


Appendix 


LATEST  PLANTING  DATES 

Latest  safe  dates  for  planting  vegetable  seeds  in  the  open  in  the  North, 
based  on  the  average  date  of  the  first  killing  frost.  (See  Figure  89.) 
Only  one  planting  is  made  of  vegetables  for  which  no  dates  are  given. 


CROP 

ZONE  C 

ZONE  D 

ZONE  E 

ZONEF 

ZONE  G 

PERIOD  NECES- 
SARY FOR 
MATURITY 

Bean  : 

Bush 

Sept.  15 

Sept.    i 

Aug.  15 

Aug.     i 

July   15 

40  to  65  days 

Bush  Lima 

Aug.  15 

Aug.     i 

fuly   15 

70  to  90  days 

Pole  Lima 

Aug.     i 

fuly    15 

[uly     i 

—  . 

5o  to  1  20  days 

Beet 

Sept.    i 

Aug.  15 

Aug.     i 

July   15 

60  to  80  days 

Cabbage,  late 

Aug.  15 

July   15 

[uly     i 

[une  15 

90  to  130  days 

Carrot 

« 

" 

" 

" 

70  to  100  days 

Cauliflower 

Oct.     i 

" 

" 

" 

" 

100  to  130  days 

Celery 

Sept.  15 

Sept.    i 

Aug.     i 

July     i 

[une     i 

i  oo  to  1  50  days 

Collard 

" 

" 

— 

— 

100  to  1  20  days 

Corn,  sweet 

Aug.  30 

Aug.  15 

[uly   30 

[uly   15 

July    i 

60  to  100  days 

Cucumber 

" 

" 

" 

60  to  80  days 

Eggplant 

[uly  15 

[uly     i 

June  15 

June    i 

— 

100  to  140  days 

Kale 

tfov.    i 

Oct.      i 

Sept.  15 

sept,    i 

Aug.  15 

90  to  1  20  days 

Lettuce 

** 

Oct.    15 

Oct.      i 

Sept.  15 

Sept.    i 

60  to  90  days 

Melon  : 

Muskmelon 

[une  15 

Tune     i 

May  15 

May    i 

— 

1  20  to  1  50  days 

Watermelon 

[uly     i 

[uly      i 

June  15 

— 

— 

loo  to  1  20  days 

Okra 

[uly   15 

" 

June    i 

— 

90  to  140  days 

Onion  : 

Seed 
Sets 

June  15 
July   15 

Tune     i 
[uly      i 

May  15 
June  15 

May    i 
June    i 

Apr.  15 

May  15 

130  to  150  days 
60  to  1  20  days 

Parsley 

Nfov.    i 

Oct.      i 

Sept.    i 

Aug.    i 

July     i 

90  to  1  20  days 

Parsnip 

July  15 

[une     i 

— 

— 

— 

125  to  i6odays 

Peas 

Nov.    i 

Oct.      i 

Sept.    i 

Aug.    i 

July  15 

40  to  80  days 

Pepper 

July   15 

July      i 

June  15 

June    i 

— 

100  to  140  days 

Pumpkin 

" 

— 

Potato  : 

Irish 

Aug.  15 

Aug.     i 

July   15 

July     i 

June  15 

80  to  140  days 

Sweet 

" 

July  15 

June  15 

May    i 

— 

1  40  to  1  60  days 

Radish 

Oct.   15 

Oct.     i 

Sept.  15 

Sept.    i 

Aug.  15 

20  to  140  days 

Salsify 

June  15 

June    i 

— 

— 

— 

1  20  to  1  80  days 

Spinach 

Oct.   15 

Oct.     i 

Sept.    i 

Aug.  15 

Aug.     i 

30  to  60  days 

Squash  : 

Bush 
Vine 

Aug.  15 
July   15 

Aug.     i 
July     i 

July  15 

June  15 

July     i 
June    i 

June  15 

60  to  80  days 
120  to  1  60  days 

Tomato 

Aug.  15 

July  15 

July    i 

June  15 

— 

80  to  1  25  days 

Turnip 

Oct.    15 

Oct.     i 

Sept.    i 

Aug.     i 

July  15 

60  to  80  days 

INDEX 


The  special  discussion  of  a  subject  begins  on  the  page  that  is  printed  in  bold- 
face type.  Thus  the  special  discussion  of  "Asparagus"  begins  on  page  282. 
A  star  (*)  after  a  number  indicates  that  an  illustration  of  the  subject  is  to  be 
found  on  the  page  referred  to. 


Acid,  in  soil,  68;   test  for,  73. 

Anther,  115*. 

Aphids,  322,  323*,  335. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  316,  317,  320,  322. 

Artichoke,   Jerusalem,   36*,   93,  280*, 

281*. 

Ashes,  wood,  63,  68. 
Asparagus,  93,  150,  282*;    insects  of, 

321. 

Bacteria,  causing  plant  diseases,  287, 

291,  292,  294*. 
Bean,  kidney,  12,  43,  101,  119,  132,  153, 

155,  260*,  261,  262;  diseases  of ,  292, 

302*,  .303*;   flower  of,  115*;  fruit  of, 

118*,  302*,  303*. 
Bean,  Lima,  146,  152,  155,   189,   261, 

263,  264*;   diseases  of,  292;  insects 

of,  322. 
Beet,  12,  42,  99,  100,  133,  150,  151,  155, 

1 60,  170,  211,  216*,  217;  storage  of, 

34i- 

Biennials,  133. 
"Black  leaf  40",  323. 
Breeding  plants,  119,  122*,  123*,  124*, 

125*,   126*,   128,   143,  144,  145;    for 

resistance  to  disease,  307*,  308*. 
Bordeaux  mixture,  295,  296*,  298,  299, 

306. 

Cabbage,  19,  42,  78*,  99,  100*,  120, 133, 
137,  147,  149,  150*,  151,  160,  167, 
175,  179,  190,  193,  195,  225,  247, 
256*,  289*;  diseases  of,  289,  293, 
307*,  308*;  insect  enemies  of,  311, 
312*,  313,  314,  315,  323*,  326*,  327; 
storage  of,  341,  344,  345. 

Cabbage  butterfly,  311,  312*. 

Cabbage  bug,  harlequin,  326*,  327. 

Cabbage,  Chinese.     See  Pe-tsai. 

Capillary  water.     See  Water,  capillary. 

Carbon,  51. 

Carbon  bisulfid,  136. 

Carbon  dioxid,  31,  46,  49,  51. 


Carrot,  12,  41*,  42,  99*,  133,  137,  150, 
160,  170,  2ii,218,  219*;  diseases  of, 
341 ;  insects  of,  334 ;  storage  of,  341. 

Catalogues,  seed,  30,  98,  129,  130. 

Cauliflower,  121,  137,  149,  150,  248, 
345- 

Celery,  100,  101*,  149,  189,  193*,  244*, 
245*,  346;  storage  of,  341,  345. 

Cells,  37*,  38*,  39,  40,  45,  48*,  49, 
78. 

Chicory,  100,  242. 

Chives,  229. 

Chlorophyll,  28,  286. 

Clay,  58,  60,  6 1*,  80. 

Climate,  154. 

Clubroot,  289*. 

Cold  frame,  149,  151,  185,  186*,  189, 
34°- 

Collard,  152,  249. 

Companion  crops,  98,  100*,  101*,  213*. 

Compost,  64*,  65,  66. 

Cool  season  crops,  147,  148,  149,  150*, 
151,  243. 

Corn,  pop,  272. 

Corn,  sweet,  13,  25*,  43,  47,  96,  98, 
zoo*,  119,  120,  125*,  129,  132,  133, 
137,  138,  152, 155,  160,  189, 195,  205*, 
270,  271*,  272*;  breeding,  124,  125, 
142,  143;  diseases  of,  301  *;  insects 
of,  234. 

Crop  rotation,  305. 

Cross-pollination,  127,  132. 

Cucumber,  133,  134,  138,  152,  155,  189, 
265;  diseases  of,  291,  293,  294*,  298; 
insects  of,  291,  319*,  322. 

Cucumber  beetle,  291,  319*. 

Cultivation,  106,  199,  200*,  201,  202, 
203*. 

Cushaw,  267. 

Cutworms,  14*,  317. 

Damping  off  disease,  176. 
Dibble,  105. 
Dirt  band,  190*. 


352 


Index 


Diseases  of  plants,  Chapter  XVIII, 
286,  289*,  294*,  300*,  301*,  302*, 
303*,  307*,  308*. 

Drainage,  80,  81,  82,  83*. 

Dust  mulch,  104,  200,  201. 

Eggplant,  99,  153,  155,  160,  175,  189, 
iQS,  274*,  275;  diseases  of,  292; 
insects  of,  322. 

Elements  needed  by  plants,  51. 

Embryo,  114,  118,  137,  165. 

Endive,  100,  138,  241,  346;  French, 
341,  345 ;  storage  of,  341,  345- 

Fat,  47,  50. 

Fertilization,  117. 

Fertilizers,    52,    66,    67,    73,    74.     See 

also  Manure. 
Flats,  175, 176*,  186*,  187*,  188*,  189*, 

100*. 

Flowers,  of  bean,  115*;  of  corn,  120*  ; 

of   pumpkin,    121*;    parts  of,  114, 

115*. 

Follow  crops,  99*,  100. 
Food,  for  plants,  29,  31  * ;  kinds  of,  46 ; 

manufacture  of,  42,  46,  47,  48*,  49, 

50,  51,  53,  55 ;  storage  in  plants,  46. 
Food  materials,  raw,  31*,  46,  51. 
Forcers,  147*. 

Fork,  spading,  103,  104*,  108*. 
Frosts,  147,  148,  149,  155,  157,  160, 

161*,  162 ;  charts  for  dates  of,  158*, 

159*. 
Fruit,  118*;  plants  grown  for,  Chapter 

XVI. 

Fumigation  of  seed,  136. 
Fungi,  287,  288. 
Fungicides,  295,  306. 

Garden,  care  of,  Chapter  XIII ;  plans 
for,  90,  91*,  92*,  94,  95,  101,  102; 
planting  the,  Chapter  XII;  types 
of  school,  5*,  6*,  ii*,  12*;  school- 
supervised  home,  7*,  8,  9. 

Garlic,  150,  230. 

Germination  of  pollen,  116*,  117*,  141. 

Germination  of  seed,  137,  138,  165, 
166*,  167,  172,  173,  174,  197,  198, 
219;  test  for,  138*,  139. 

Growing  season,  154*,  155,  156*. 


Growth,  36,  38*,  39,  40,  45. 

Hardening  plants,  190. 

Hellebore,  white,  316,  317. 

Hoes,  105*,  106*,  107;  wheel,  93, 105*, 

106,  107. 

Horse-radish,  221. 
Hotbed,  180*,  181*,  182*,  183*,  184*, 

185,  189,  346. 
Humus,  56,  57,  60,  72. 
Hybrids,  119,  122*,  123*,  124. 
Hydrogen,  51. 

Insects,  Chapter  XIX ;  beneficial,  334 ; 
fumigation  of  seeds  for,  136;  inju- 
rious, 14*,  312*,  318*,  319*,  325*, 
326*,  330*,  331*,  332*;  poisons  for, 
315,  316,  317,  321.  See  also  refer- 
ences to  insects  under  Spraying. 

Iron,  51. 

Irrigation,  85,  174*,  206*,  207*,  208*, 
209. 

Kale,  100,  120,  137,  152,  249. 
Kerosene  emulsion,  322,  324. 
Kohl-rabi,  13,  120,  133,  137,  149,  189, 
283. 

Leaves,  crops  grown  for,  Chapter  XV, 
225*,  226*,  227*,  233*,  234*,  237*, 
239*;  structure  of,  28,  31,  48*,  53; 
work  of.  29,  31*,  34*,  48*,  53. 

Leek,  150,  232. 

Lettuce,  12,  42,  99,  100*,  112,  132,  150, 
151,  155,  160,  170,  175,  189,  193,  194, 
346;  head,  149,  252*,  253*;  leaf, 
148,  254*. 

Light,  use  to  plants,  28,  47,  48,  49,  53. 

Lime,  60,  62,  64*,  68,  69*,  70*,  84,  86, 
290 ;  in  Bordeaux  mixture,  295. 

Line  for  planting,  104,  105. 

Loam  soil,  61. 

Magnesium,  51. 

Manure,  52,  62*,  63,  67,  84;  composi- 
tion of,  63  ;  poultry,  63,  64,  65. 

Melons,  132,  133,  152,  155,  167,  267; 
diseases  of,  292;  insects  of,  322; 
musk,  119,  138,  267,  268*;  water, 
138,  267,  268. 


Index 


353 


Mulch,  85,  104,  200,  201. 
Mustard,  137,  150,  167,  255,  289. 
Mutant,  119. 

Nasturtium,  255. 

Nitrates,  66,  73,  74. 

Nitrogen,  50,  51,  62,  63,  66,  67,  73,  74. 

Novelties,  98,  122. 

Okra,  138,  152,  153,  189,  269. 

Onion,  42,  100,  137,  149,  150,  155,  170*, 
205*,  224,  232,  233,  234*;  bulblet, 
230;  Egyptian,  230;  multiplier, 
230;  storage  of,  241,  346. 

Organic  material  in  the  soil,  56,  60. 

Ovary,  115*,  116*,  126. 

Overplanting,  96. 

Ovules,  115*. 

Oxygen,  30,  31,  49,  51,  166. 

Parasites,  287,  288. 

Paris  green,  316,  317. 

Parsley,  137,  237,  238. 

Parsnip,  42,   133,   137,   151,  155,  211, 

220. 
Peas,  41*,  43,  99,  100,  137,    150,  155, 

259. 

Peg  for  transplanting,  105,  187*. 
Pepper,  99,   137,   153,   160,   175,   179, 

189,  195,  274*. 
Peppergrass,  254. 
Perennials,  93,  152. 
Petals,  114,  115*. 
Pe-tsai,  100,  149,  160,  175,  249*,  250*, 

251*;  storage  of,  341,  345. 
Phosphorus,  50,  51,  62,  63,  64,  66,  67, 

73,  74- 

Photosynthesis,  47,  48,  53. 
Pistil,  115*,  116*. 

Planning  the  garden,  Chapter  VIII. 
Planting,  charts  of  dates  for,  348,  349, 

350;  time  for,  Chapter  XI,  97,  157, 

158*,  159*,  160,  161,  162;  preparing 

soil  for,   1 68;    tools  for,   104,   105; 

work  of ,  169*,  170*,  171*,  173*. 
Planting  zones,  97,  157,    158*,   159*, 

348,  349,  350. 
Plants,  care  of  growing,  Chapter  XII ; 

care  of  seedling,  Chapter  XII ;  food 

of,  Chapter  V;   life  of,  40,  41*,  42; 


needs  of,  24,  30*,  33,  43,  199 ;  parts 

of,  27,  30*;  work  of,  31*,  40,  42,  52. 
Poisons,  for  insects,  315,  316,  317,  321; 

for  parasitic  fungi,    292,  295,   298, 

299,  306. 
Pollen,  116,  117*,  118;  germination  of, 

116*,  117*,  141,  142. 
Pollination,    116,   117,   124,   125,   127, 

141. 

Potash,  63,  66,  67,  73,  74. 
Potassium,  51,  62,  66,  67,  73,  74. 
Potato,    Irish,    36*,    152,   277,    278*, 

279* ;   diseases  of,  279,  292  ;   insects 

of,  280,  321,  334;    storage  of,  341. 
Potato,  sweet,  36*,  153,  155,  175,  211, 

221 ;  storage  of,  341,  346. 
Protein,  47,  50,  51. 
Pumpkin,  121,  126,  127*,  134,  138,  144, 

145,  266,   267*.     See  also   Summer 

squash. 

Radish,  12,  42,  77*,  99,  112,  132,  134, 
138,  146,  148,  150,  155,  170,  2ii,213, 
289;  diseases  of,  289;  insects  of,  328. 

Rake,  103,  104,  106,  168*. 

Raking,  168*. 

Replanting,  206. 

Respiration,  31,  32,  35,  49,  51,  166. 

Rhubarb,  93,  147*,  152,  224,  226, 
227*,  256. 

Rocket,  yellow,  238. 

Roots,  26,27,  28*,  30,  31*,  55,  76*,  77*; 
work  of,  29. 

Root  crops,  Chapter  XIV. 

Root  hairs,  76*,  77*,  78,  87*,  88. 

Rogues,  128. 

Rutabaga,  150,  151,  211,  217,  289; 
storage  of,  341 . 

Salsify,  133,  137,  151,  155,  211,  220. 

Sand,  58,  60. 

Sap,  29,  38. 

Seedlings,  40,  41,  42,  76*,  77*,  78*,  87*, 
1 66*,  175.  See  also  Transplanting. 

Seeds,  Chapter  X,  36,  40,  42,  112, 
165;  amounts  needed,  131;  buying 
of,  129,  130*,  131 ;  catalogues  of,  30, 
98,  129,  130;  collecting,  134,  135; 
germination  of,  see  Germination ; 
growing  plants  from,  Chapter  XII ; 


354 


Index 


outdoor  beds  for,  194,  195*;  plant- 
ing of,  146, 169,  170*,  171*,  172, 174*, 
178, 179,  194,  195*;  producing,  128*, 
129, 132 ;  storage  of,  135  ;  treatment 
for  diseases,  136,  137,  306 ;  treat- 
ment for  insects,  136;  viability  of, 
137-  ' 

Sepals,  114. 

Shallot,  229. 

Short-period  crops,  99. 

Sieves  for  soil,  176,  177*. 

Soil,  Chapter  VI ;  clay,  58*,  60*,  61 ; 
fertility  of,  62  ;  formation  of,  56 ;  for 
flats,  176 ;  granules  of,  57  ;  loam,  61 ; 
particles  of,  55,  56,  57;  physical 
condition  of,  55,  56,  57*,  58,  59; 
water  in,  55,  80. 

Sorrel,  garden,  227. 

Spade,  103. 

Spading,  58*,  59,  60,  103,  108*,  154; 
fork  for,  103,  104*,  108*. 

Spinach,  99,  100,  138,  150,  254. 

Spinach,  New  Zealand,  135,  151,  152, 
240*,  256. 

Sports,  119,  127. 

Spraying,  295,  297*,  316,  320,  321,  323, 
324- 

Squash,  diseases  of,  292;  Hubbard, 
113*,  134,  138,  152,  155,  189,  266; 
insects  of,  322,  324,  325,  330*,  331*, 
332* ;  storage  of,  341,  346 ;  summer, 
121*,  122,  123*,  134,  138,  152,  189, 
265,  266. 

Stamen,  115*. 

Starch,  46,  49,  50,  53. 

Stems,  26,  28,  30,  31*,  33,  277;  plants 
grown  for,  Chapter  XVII. 

Storage  of  vegetables,  Chapter  XX, 
4,  256,  339,  340*,  343*,  344*,  345*- 

Succession  crops,  98,  99,  101*,  270. 

Successive  crops,  96,  98*. 

Sugar,  28,  46,  47,  48,  49. 

Sulfur,  50,  51. 

Swiss  chard,  12,  70,  151,  225,  239*, 
256. 


Tankage,  66,  67. 

Teaching  of  gardening,  Chapter  I; 
aims  of,  2,  3,  4,  10,  n*. 

Thinning  crops,  204*,  205*,  210,  212. 

Temperature  requirements  of  plants, 
146. 

Tomato,  13,  19,  112*,  119,  124*,  125*, 
126*,  132,  133,  134*,  137,  142,  143, 
153,  155,  160,  175,  179,  189,  190, 
192*,  195,  272*,  273;  diseases  of, 
292,  298,  299;  insects  of,  322,  334. 

Tools,  Chapter  IX,  103,  104*,  105*, 
106*,  107*,  108*,  109*,  no,  in, 
202;  care  of,  106*,  107*;  proper 
use  of,  108*,  109*,  no. 

Transpiration,  30,  34,  75. 

Transplanting,  79,  175, 186,  187*,  188*, 
189*,  190,  191,  192*,  193*,  194*, 
198,  236,  243. 

Turnip,  19,  99,  133,  138,  150,  151,  160, 
211,  215,  289;  storage  of,  341. 

Varieties,  developing  new,  119,  122*, 
123*;  how  kept  true  to  type,  127; 
resistant  to  disease,  248,  307*,  308*; 
standard,  98,  137. 

Viability  of  seeds,  137. 

Vine  crops,  265. 

Vitamines,  19,  21*,  47. 

Warm-season  crops,  147,  148,  152,  153. 

Water,  capillary,  79,  81*,  82,  84,  86; 
88*;  conserving,  85-200;  free,  80; 
in  plants,  Chapter  VII,  29,  42,  75,  78, 
79 ;  in  soil,  79,  80,  85 ;  movement 
in  soil,  84,  85 ;  for  germination  of 
seeds,  165,  167. 

Watering.     See  Irrigation. 

Weather,  154. 

Weeding,  203,  210. 

Weeds,  24,  44,  52. 

Wilt  of  vine  crops,  291. 

Wilting,  78*,  192*. 

Witloof  chicory,  242. 

Zones,  planting,  97,  157,  158*,  159*. 


Biiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiin^^^ 

I  NEW-WORLD  I 

SCIENCE  SERIES 


WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,    NEW    YORK 

2126    PRAIRIE    AVENUE,    CHICAGO 


Edited    by    JOHN    W.    RITCHIE 

'TpHE    publication    of    books    that    "apply    the    world's 

JL      knowledge  to  the  world's  needs"  is  the  ideal  of  this 

1       house  and  it  is  intended  that  the  different  volumes  of  this        | 

series   shall    express    this    ideal  in   a    very  conrcete   way. 

Completed 

I         Human    Physiology.      By    John    W.    Ritchie,   Professor     of    Biology 
College   of    William    and   Mary.      A   text   on   physiology,  hygiene, 
and  sanitation  for  upper  grammar  or  junior  high  schools.     $1.60. 
Laboratory    Manual   for    Human    Physiology.       By    Carl    Hartman,         | 
University   of  Texas.      A  manual  to  accompany  Ritchie's  Human          = 
Physiology.    Bound  in  paper  and  cloth     60  cents  and  $1.00, 

I  Science  for  Beginners.  By  Delos  Fall,  Albion  College,  Michigan. 
A  beginning  text  in  general  science  for  intermediate  schools  and 
junior  high  schools.  $1.68. 

Exercise  and  Review  Book  in  Biology.  By  J.  G.  Blaisdell,  Yonkers,  = 
N.  Y.,  High  School.  A  combined  laboratory  guide,  notebook  and 
review  book  for  students'  use.  Written  from  the  standpoint  of  = 
efficiency  and  furnishing  material  for  a  year's  work  and  to  ac-  = 
company  any  one  of  several  high-school  texts  in  general  biology.  I 
Bound  in  strong  paper.  $1.20. 

I  Trees,  Stars,  and  Birds.  By  E.  L.  Moseley,  Ohio  State  Normal 
College,  Bowling  Green.  A  book  of  outdoor  science  for  junior  high 
schools  and  the  upper  grammar  grades.  $1.80. 

Personal    Hygiene    and    Home     Nursing.      By    Louisa    C.    Lippitt, 
University  of    Wisconsin.      A    practical   text    for  use    with    classes 
of  young  women  in  vocational  and  industrial  high  schools,  colleges,          = 
and  normal  schools.     $1.68. 

Science  of    Plant    Life.      By  E.  N.   Transeau,   Ohio  State   University.          = 
A  scientific  and  very  practical  text  for  high  schools.    $1.88. 

1         Zoology.     By  T.  D.  A.  Cocker  ell,   University  of  Colorado.     A  text  for 

college  use.     $3.60. 

Experimental  Organic  Chemistry.     By  A.  P.  West,  University  of  the          I 
Philippines.      A  text  for  college  use.     $3.20. 

|  Common  Science.  By  Carleton  W.  Washburne^  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
W'innetka,  Illinois.  Especially  made  for  junior  high  schools.  $1.68- 

Also  Manual  for  above.  20  cents. 

=  = 

Other  volumes  are  also  in  preparation. 


iiinmiiiiiniii immu 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinii? 


rMMMIMllllHllUNI  IIINIlMHIMlllllMMlMllllHlllMIUniMIIIIIUnMinMllinilMiniiniHMMIMIIIIIIMIiMlNnillliMIMnilMMiniriUninnrlU 
i 


NEW-WORLD  SCIENCE  SERIES 


Edited  by  John  W.  Ritchie 

!  SCIENCE  of  PLANT  LIFE  | 

A  HIGH  SCHOOL  BOTANY  treating  of  the 
plant  in  its  relation  to  its  environment 

By  E.  N.  TRANSEAU 

Professor  of  Botany,  Ohio  State  University 

THE  fundamental  aim  of  this  text  is  to  give  the  student 
an  understanding  of  the  plant  as  it  lives.     Environ- 
mental  factors  are  considered   in  such   a  way  that  they        | 
help  to  make  clear  the  reasons  which  underlie  many  agri-        f 
cultural  practices.     The  author  so  arranges  and  presents 
his  facts  that  the  idea  that  the  plant  is  alive  and  that  it 
has    a    definite    relation    to    every   other    living   being   is 
unescapable. 

The   teacher   of  botany  will1  find   an    ally  in   this   book. 
Every  page  carries  its  answer  to  that  old  query  of  pupils, 
"What  is  the  use  in  studying  botany?"     Almost  all   the        | 
chapters  are  preceded  by  suggestions  for   laboratory  and         | 
field  work  and  are  followed  by  practical  problems.    The        | 
exercises    are   varied    enough   to   provide    work    for    any 
class  and  they  are  adapted  to  the  succession  of  seasons. 
The  illustrations,  the  exercises,  and  the  subjects  that  re- 
ceive  distinctive   treatment  are   not   embroidered   on   the 
text;  they  are  made  a  part  of  its  warp  and  woof. 

In    bringing    out    SCIENCE    OF    PLANT    LIFE,    publisher, 
printer,  and  artist  have  collaborated  to  produce  a  volume 
which  in  appearance  and  in  every  detail  of  manufacture        1 
is  worthy  of  its  content.     The  book  is  admirably  adapted 
to  meet  the  needs  of  beginning  students  of  botany  every- 
where, and  it  will  prove  helpful  to  all  who  wish  to  be        | 
•intelligent  about  plants. 

viii  +  344  pages.  Price  $1.88 

WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,   NEW  YORK 

2126  PRAIRIE  AVENUE,   CHICAGO 


iiiiiiiiiiiiuiuiimuiiiiuumimiiiii 


NEW-WORLD  AGRICULTURE  SERIES 

Edited  by  W.  ].  Sfillman 

NATURE-STUDY 
AGRICULTURE 

A  Textbook  for  Beginners 
By  WILLIAM  T.  SKILLING 

Supervisor  of  Nature  Study  and  Agriculture 
State  Normal  School,  San  Diego 

HERE  is  a  book  written  in  a  style  so  simple  that  it  can 
be  used  in  the  seventh  grade.    Yet  it  covers  the  essen- 
tials so  well  that  it  may  be  used  in  any  first  course  in  this 
subject. 

Practically  every  paragraph  has  a  marginal  note  which  the 
student  will  find  helpful  in  review  and  which  the  teacher 
can  easily  use  for  questions  to  pupils. 

Every  chapter  has  a  list  of  Experiments  to  be  performed  and 
a  list  of  Observations  to  be  made.  The  list  of  References 
is  valuable  because  the  bulletins  named  are  easily  available. 

The  book  is  especially  adapted  to  the  project  method  of 
teaching  agriculture  to  young  people.  The  procedure  is  to 
present  principles  in  the  classroom,  demonstrating  them  by 
simple  experiments  where  possible,  and  also  have  each 
pupil  do  work  in  the  school  or  home  garden. 

The  book  meets  the  needs  and  interest  of  the  pupil.  It  can 
be  used  in  any  part  of  the  country.  It  is  largely  self-teaching. 
The  illustrations  are  unusually  clear  and  appropriate.  There 
are  266  of  them.  Price  $1.68 

Cloth,     •viii  -\-j22  pages 

WORLD   BOOK  COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,   NEW  YORK 
2126    PRAIRIE    AVENUE,    CHICAGO 


iiiiiiiimiimiimiimmimiiiimimiii niiiiiin iiiiimiimiiiiiiiiiiimmnimimiiii iiiiiiiiiuiiui m« 

NEW-WORLD  AGRICULTURE  SERIES 

FARM  SCIENCE  | 

A   Foundation    Textbook   on  Agriculture 
By  W.  J.  SPILLMAN,  D.  sc. 

Formerly  Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Office  of  Farm  Management 

TN  this  new  text,  Professor  Spillman  succeeds  in 
[_  presenting  the  subject  of  agriculture  compre- 
hensively yet  adequately  to  beginning  students,. 
There  is  no  attempt  at  being  "practical"  in  the 
sense  of  teaching  what  is  usually  learned  by  ex- 
perience, but  fundamental  principles  are  developed 
in  such  a  way  that  they  will  prove  to  be  valuable 
guides  in  farm  work  anywhere. 
Problems,  experiments,  and  exercises  supplement 
the  text  admirably.  The  class  exercises  are  par- 
ticularly significant.  One  that  is  typical  requires 
a  livestock  census  for  neighborhood  farms.  Not 
only  are  the  numbers  and  breeds  of  animals  learned, 
but  the  special  reasons  for  keeping  them  are  in- 
quired into.  The  very  essence  of  the  business  and 
science  of  farming  is  revealed. 
The  text  is  illustrated  with  pertinent  photographs, 
numerous  drawings,  by  R.  C.  Steadman  and  J.  M. 
Shull,  that  are  of  rare  value,  and  a  large  soil  map 
of  the  United  States.  The  material  throughout  is 
conveniently  arranged  for  use  in  the  classroom. 
The  language  is  simple  and  the  teacher  does  not 
need  to  be  an  expert  in  agriculture  to  use  the 
book  effectively. 

FARM  SCIENCE  is  suited  for  use  in  any  grade  that 
is  prepared  to  take  up  the  study  of  agriculture 
at  all,  and  it  may  be  read  with  profit  by  many  a 
successful  man  who  has  made  farming  his  life 
work. 

pages. 


WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YORK 
2126  PRAIRIE  AVENUE,  CHICAGO 

Hllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 


• 
• 

iHiiiiimuuiS 


UIIIMUIIIIIIIUIIINMIIUIIIIIIIinilllMlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllllllll 

SCHOOL  GARDEN  SERIES 
Edited  by  JOHN  W.  RITCHIE 

THE  CHILD'S  FOOD  GARDEN 

WITH  A  FEW  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FLOWER  CULTURE 

By  VAN  EVRIE  KILPATRICK 

Former  President,  School  Garden  Association  of  America 
I  I 

/"TAHIS  is  a  real  beginner's  book,  far  more  simple 
JL  than  any  other  garden  book  that  has  been 
published.  It  explains  the  very  first  steps  in  garden-  | 
ing  and  the  different  problems  are  treated  as  they 
will  arise.  The  clear  and  exact  directions  make  it 
|  possible  for  the  child  to  succeed  in  his  first  garden 
attempt.  The  various  steps  are  illustrated  with  | 
photographs  of  children  carrying  out  the  actual 
operations.  Work  is  planned  for  each  month  in 
the  year,  from  seed  testing  in  January  to  mulching 
in  November  and  taking  stock  in  December. 

It  is  the  child  and  his  problems,  not  the  subject 
|      of  horticulture  that  the  author  continually  holds  in 
mind.     His  book  is  intended  for  any  pupil  who  can       | 
read.     It  may  be  used  as  low  as  the  third  grade  by 
the  pupil  who  has  a  garden  plot  assigned  to  him  at 
school  or  at  home ;  and  it  may  be  profitably  followed 
by  high-school  students  or  even  by  adults  who  are       | 
making  gardens  for  the  first  time. 

A  book  to  help  the  child  do  his  part  in  the  food 
campaign 

Bound  in  cloth,  60  cents  postpaid 
Paper  bound,  36  cents  postpaid 

WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,   NEW  YORK 

2126  PRAIRIE  AVENUE,   CHICAGO 


£.'iiiii iiiiiiiiiiiimiMiiiiiiiiiiiiimimiiiimiii IMIIIIIIIIIMII IIIIIIMIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIII iiiiiiiimimmimimiiiimmiiimu 

NEW-WORLD  SCIENCE  SERIES 
Edited  by  John  W.  Ritchie 

|  SCIENCE  for  BEGINNERS  ( 

By  DELOS  FALL 

Professor  of  Chemistry,  Albion  College 

|  | 

*HpO  supply  the  need  for  a  course  that  will  give  the  pre- 
A   paratory  training  which  any  scientific  study  demands, 
1        SCIENCE  FOR  BEGINNERS  by  Professor  Delos  Fall  was  made. 
|        The  aim  in  this  text  is  to  win  the  interest  of  pupils,  to 
give  them  conceptions  of  nature  that  are  fundamental,  and 
above  all  to  ground  them  in  the  method  of  science. 

The  subject  matter  has  to  do  with  the  earth  sciences,  and 
principally  with  physics  and  chemistry.  In  the  develop- 
ment of  each  topic,  every  advantage  that  the  pupils'  ex- 
perience and  interest  may  afford  is  utilized.  Exercises 

I  or  experiments  are  interspersed  throughout  the  work,  and 
for  these  only  the  simplest  materials  are  required.  The 
studies  are  carried  to  those  connecting  principles  which 
permit  the  organization  of  knowledge.  The  book  is  illus- 
trated with  a  number  of  excellent  photographs  and  over 
200  drawings  of  more  than  usual  merit. 

| 
The  text  is  adapted  for  use  in  grades  seven,  eight,  and 

|         nine,  or  in  any  classes  that  are  about  to  take  up  their  first 
work  in  science.    It  will  prove  helpful  to  the  teachers  and 
pupils  who  use  it  directly,  and  its  influence  will  continue        | 
with  classes  as  they  advance.     It  will  thoroughly  ground 
pupils  in  those  ideas  that  are  prerequisite  to   any  right        1 
work  in  science. 

xi  +  388  pages.     Price  $1.68 

—  — 

WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

E:  — 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,   NEW   YORK 

2126  PRAIRIE  AVENUE,  CHICAGO 

illMIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllllMMIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIMMIIIIIIIII 


:AGO 
iiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiimiiimiimiiiiiMiiiiimiiiMiii? 


Fig.  36.  Why  doesn't 
the  water  spill  out? 


neiv  junior  high  school  general  science  text 
based  u£on  'what  children  'want  to  know. 


COMMON 
SCIENCE 

By    CARLETON   W.    WASHBURNE 

THIS  is  an  entirely  new  kind  of  book. 
The  foundation  on  which  the  book 
was  built  is  a  collection  of  2,000  questions. 
These  were  classified   according   to    the 
principles  involved. 

The  book  is  written  in  the  language  of  children,  full  of  in- 
teresting stories.  It  makes  real  use  of  the  child's  imagination. 

It  contains  a  wealth  of  practical  information.  There  are 
116  fascinating  experiments  to  be  performed  with  simple 
apparatus.  The  88  applications  are  to  everyday  problems. 
Over  600  exercises  help  the  child  to  thoroughly  understand 
all  the  principal  laws  of  nature. 

The  illustrations  show  the  apparatus  in  use  with  children 
who  are  performing  the  experiments.  There  are  146  very 
helpful  reproductions  of  photographs  and  drawings. 

Mimeographed  editions  of  the  book  have  been  in  successful 
use  in  several  schools  for  four  years.  It  has  proved  itself 
adaptable  to  either  the  individual  system  of  instruction  or  the 
usual  class  method.  The  book  in  its  present  form  is  the  result 
of  its  long  trial  use.  It  will  thus  be  found  successful  in  use. 

Cloth,  xvi  +390  pages.  (Also  MANUAL 

OF  INFORMATION.     Paper.  24  pages.) 

Price  of  book  $1.68,  of  Manual  20  cents. 

WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YORK 

2126   PRAIRIE   AVENUE,   CHICAGO 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiimiminiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiniiiiiiiiinniiiiiniiiiiiiHinniiinfnmimmiiniiiiinMiu 

NEW-WORLD  SCIENCE  SERIES 
Edited  by  John  W.  Ritchie 

TREES,  STARS  and  BIRDS  I 

A  BOOK  OF  OUTDOOR  SCIENCE 
By  EDWIN  LINCOLN  MOSELEY 

Head  of  the  Science  Department,  State  Normal  College  of 

Northwestern  Ohio 

I  I 

'TpHE  usefulness  of  nature  study  in  the  schools  has  been 
JL    seriously  limited  by  the  lack  of  a  suitable  textbook.        | 
It  is  to  meet  this  need   that   Trees,  Stars,  and  Birds  is 
issued.     The  author  is  one  of  the  most  successful  teach- 
|        ers  of  outdoor  science   in   this   country.     He  believes   in 
|        field  excursions,  and  his  text  is  designed  to  help  teachers        | 
and  pupils  in  the  inquiries  that  they  will  make  for  them- 
selves. 


|        The  text  deals  with  three  phases  of  outdoor  science  that        f 
|        have  a  perennial   interest,   and   it  will   make  the  benefit        I 

of  the  author's  long  and  successful   experience  available 

to  younger  teachers. 

The  first  section  deals  with  trees,  and  the  discussion  of 
maples  is  typical:  the  student  is  reminded  that  he  has 
eaten  maple  sugar;  there  is  an  interesting  account  of  its 
production ;  the  fact  is  brought  out  that  the  sugar  is  really 
made  in  the  leaves.  The  stars  and  planets  that  all  should 

|  know  are  told  about  simply  and  clearly.  The  birds 
commonly  met  with  are  considered,  and  their  habits  of 

|  feeding  and  nesting  are  described.  Pertinent  questions 
are  scattered  throughout  each  section. 

E  = 

The  book  is  illustrated  with  167  photographs,  69  draw-         1 
|        ings,  9  star  maps,  and  with  16  color  plates  of  58  birds, 
from  paintings  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes. 

It  is  well  adapted  for  use  in  junior  high  schools,  yet  the        | 
presentation  is  simple  enough  for  pupils  in  the  sixth  grade.        I 

E  = 

Cloth,    inii  -f  404  -j-  xvi  pages.  Price  §1.80. 

WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YORK 
2126  PRAIRIE  AVENUE,  CHICAGO 

IIIHIIIIllIlilllUllllUlIllIllIlllllllllllllllIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIlllllIll 


= 

j 


CONSERVATION   SERIES 


Conservation    Reader 

By  HAROLD  W.   FAIRBANKS,  Ph.  D. 

Lecturer,     University    of    California;    Geography   Supervisor     Berkeley 
Public  Schools 

A  small  book  bringing  out  in  a  simple  and  interesting  manner  the 
principles  of  conservation  of  natural  resources  has  long  been  wanted , 
for  there  has  been  little  on  the  subject  that  could  be  placed  in  the  hands 
of  pupils.  It  is  to  answer  this  need  that  Fairbanks'  CONSERVATION 
READER  has  been  prepared. 

The  book  touches  upon  every  phase  of  conservation,  but  it  deals  at 
greatest  length  with  saving  the  soil,  the  forests,  and  wild  life.  It  is  one 
of  the  author's  main  purposes  to  arouse  a  stronger  sentiment  for  pre- 
serving what  remains  of  the  forests  as  well  as  for  extending  their  areas. 
This  is  because  proper  forestation  will  lessen  the  danger  of  floods  and 
of  erosion  of  the  soil,  and  it  will  encourage  the  return  of  the  wild  crea- 
tures that  are  of  so  much  economic  importance  and  add  so  much  to  the 
joy  of  life. 

The  matter  is  presented  in  an  easy  narrative  style  that  is  calculated  to 
arouse  the  intelligent  interest  of  children.  The  text  is  illustrated  with 
photographs  of  wild  animals,  trees,  landscapes,  and  rarely  beautiful 
birds,  printed  in  colors.  The  subject  is  timely  and  the  treatment  is 
happy  throughout. 

CONSERVATION  READER  should  be  used  as  a  reader  or  as  a  book  for 
regular  study  in  every  elementary  school  in  the  country. 

Cloth,     vi  +  216  pages. 
Price  $1.40. 

WORLD   BOOK   COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,   NEW  YORK 

2126   PRAIRIE   AVENUE,    CHICAGO 


iiimmiiiiimmimiiiimiiiimim iiiiiimm iiiiiiui iimmimmiimiimiimmmmiimmiimmiiiiiiiimimiiimninu 


INSECT  ADVENTURES 

By  J.  HENRI  FABRE 

Selected  and  Arranged  for  Young  People  by  Louis  Seymour  Hasbrouck 


ANEW  supplementary  reader  m  nature  study  for  the 
intermediate  grades.  A  book  containing  a  vast 
amount  of  information  relating  to  insect  life — the  life 
story  of  the  spider,  the  fly,  the  bee,  the  wasp,  and  other 
insects — told  by  one  who  was  at  once  a  lover  of  nature,  a 
great  scientist,  and  a  most  entertaining  writer.  Maeter- 
linck calls  Fabre  the  "insects'  Homer,"  and  declares  that 
his  work  is  as  much  a  classic  as  the  famous  Greek  epic, 
and  deserves  to  be  known  and  studied  as  a  classic. 

This  is  the  first  time  that  Fabre's  writings  have  been 
made  available  for  school  use,  and  the  book  will  prove 
a  delight  to  school  children  wherever  they  are  given  the 
chance  to  read  it.  No  live  boy  or  girl  could  fail  to  be 
interested  in  nature  subjects  presented  by  so  gifted  a 
naturalist  as  Fabre  in  the  form  of  such  absorbing  ad- 
ventures. 

The  many  quaint  sketches  with  which  the  book  has  been 
illustrated  by  Elias  Goldberg  complete  its  charm. 

A  useful  index  is  included. 

Cloth.     300  pages.    Price  $1.48. 

WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,    NEW    YORK 

2126   PRAIRIE   AVENUE,    CHICAGO 

ailUUIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIll IIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 


This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


*fr 


General  Library 
sity  of  CaJ 
Berkeley 


YB  47520 


5040... 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


